Introduction The back consists of the vertebrae, the intervertebral joints and ligaments, and the muscles that clothe their posterior and lateral aspects ( Fig. 8.1 ). The vertebral column encloses the spinal cord and its meninges. The vertebral column comprises vertebrae, which are classified regionally as: cervical (7); thoracic (12); lumbar (5); sacral (5 vertebrae fused to form the sacrum); and coccygeal (3–5) ( Fig. 8.5…

Introduction The bones of the head and neck include the skull, the mandible and the cervical vertebrae ( Fig. 7.1 ). The skull (cranium) comprises the neurocranium, which contains the brain and meninges, and the bones of the face (viscerocranium), attached to the anterior aspect of the neurocranium and clothed by soft tissues. The facial bones enclose the orbits, the nose and paranasal air sinuses, and…

Introduction The lower limb supports the body during standing and locomotion. The hip (coxal) bone ( Fig. 6.1 ) provides attachment for muscles of the buttock and thigh, which link the limb to the trunk. The hip joint, between the acetabulum of the hip bone and the head of the femur, is multiaxial and provides versatility of movement. The femur ( Fig. 6.1 ) is surrounded…

Introduction The pelvic cavity is in direct continuity with the abdominal cavity. It extends downwards and backwards within the confines of the bony pelvis as far as the pelvic floor (pelvic diaphragm), inferior to which lies the perineum. Some anatomists and surgeons refer to the false pelvis or greater pelvis (below the iliac crests but above the pelvic inlet) and the true pelvis or lesser pelvis…

Introduction The abdomen is separated from the thorax above by the diaphragm, and below is continuous with the pelvis at the pelvic inlet. Passing through the diaphragm are the aorta, oesophagus and inferior vena cava. Because the diaphragm is strongly convex upwards, the upper abdominal organs lie deep to the lower ribs and costal cartilages. The pelvic inlet is an arbitrary plane sloping downwards and forwards,…

Introduction The upper limb (extremity) comprises several bones and their joints ( Fig. 3.1 ), clothed by soft tissues. For descriptive purposes, the limb is divided into regions ( Fig. 3.2 ), each enveloped by fascia and containing muscles with nerve and vascular supplies. The scapula with its associated muscles and soft tissues comprise the scapular region, the muscles attaching between the front of the chest…

Introduction The thorax is the region of the trunk that includes the sternum, costal cartilages, ribs and thoracic vertebrae, together with the structures they enclose. Superiorly, the thorax is limited by the upper surfaces of the first ribs and their costal cartilages, the manubrium of the sternum and the first thoracic vertebra. The space bounded by these structures is the superior thoracic aperture (thoracic inlet) (…

Terms of Position and Movement To avoid ambiguity and confusion, anatomical terms of position and movement are defined according to an internationally accepted convention. This convention defines the anatomical position as one in which the human body stands erect with the feet together and the face, eyes and palms of the hands directed forwards ( Fig. 1.1 ). With the subject in the anatomical position, three…