Introduction Imaging methods of the spine have greatly expanded since the advent of X-rays for the use of plain radiographs (c.1895), providing anatomical clarity for diagnosis and treatment of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral vertebrae. The complex anatomy of…
Introduction Over the past few decades, the management of lumbosacral spinal disease has become notoriously difficult, whereby complex biomechanics and heterogeneity in presenting conditions have challenged treating clinicians. In response, classification systems emerged, leading to expanded characterization of disease and…
Lumbosacral Anatomy Osseous Anatomy The lumbosacral spine consists of five lumbar (L1–L5) and five sacral vertebrae (S1–S5) and their associated intervertebral discs, nerves, muscles, ligaments, and blood vessels. Each vertebra consists of a vertebral body, vertebral arch, and seven processes.…
Introduction The lumbosacral spine consists on average of 5 lumbar vertebrae, the sacrum, and coccyx. An MRI scan of this area is used to accurately depict soft tissue in and around the lumbosacral spine. Measurements mainly focus on a change…
Introduction The lumbosacral spine consists of five large vertebrae that make up the lumbar spine and five fused vertebrae that make up one single bone which articulate on each side of pelvis called the sacrum. Overall, spinal balance is determined…
Introduction Full-length radiographic spinal imaging is indicated in several clinical scenarios such as screening for congenital abnormalities of the spine, demyelinating processes affecting the spinal cord, scoliosis diagnoses, and trauma as well as many other clinical indications. Abnormalities that arise…
Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper. Introduction There are multiple imaging modalities to evaluate the spine. The type of imaging tool for the spine depends on the type of disease,…
Introduction The evaluation of spinal pathologies is dependent upon careful history, clinical examination, and appropriate full-length spine radiographs. Appropriate full-length spine radiographs should be obtained when evaluating a patient for suspected coronal, sagittal, or combined imbalance. Full-length spine should ideally…
Introduction Classification systems provide a common language through which physicians and researchers can communicate. They can help create a framework for standardized treatment algorithms through which surgeons can directly and reproducibly contribute to improvements in patient outcomes. In order for…
Introduction Computed tomography (CT) scans have become the mainstay modality for screening patients in the setting of cervical trauma and identifying fractures in the subaxial cervical spine. High-resolution CT imaging, in particular, has become the primary radiologic means for screening…