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Passive solute transport

Objectives 1. Explain how the distribution of lipids and proteins in the cell membrane influences the membrane permeability to hydrophobic and hydrophilic solutes and ions. 2. Differentiate the following mechanisms based on the source of energy driving the process and the necessity for an integral cell membrane protein: diffusion, mediated (facilitated) transport, and secondary active transport. 3. Explain how the transport rates of certain molecules and…

Electrochemical potential energy and transport processes

Objectives 1. Recognize that concentration gradients and electrical potential gradients store chemical and electrical potential energy, respectively. 2. Recognize that electrochemical potential energy drives all transport processes. 3. Use the concept of electrochemical potential energy to analyze transport processes. Electrochemical potential energy drives all transport processes In Chapter 2 , by examining the permeability of biological membranes to various solutes, we concluded that, with the exception…

Ion channel diversity

Objectives 1. Compare and contrast the properties of voltage-gated Ca 2+ and Na + channels. 2. Describe the mechanism of action of Ca 2+ antagonist drugs, and describe their use as therapeutic agents. 3. Describe the properties of TRP channels. 4. Describe the role of A-type K + channels and Ca 2+ -activated K + channels in regulating the AP firing pattern in a bursting neuron.…

Generation and propagation of the action potential

Objectives 1. Describe the properties of the voltage clamp, and explain why it is useful for the study of ion channels. 2. Describe the properties of voltage-gated Na + and K + channels. 3. Define the terms “conductance,” “ionic current,” and “driving force,” and calculate these quantities using Ohm’s Law. 4. Define inactivation and describe some functional properties of neurons that result from Na + channel…

Passive electrical properties of membranes

Objectives 1. Define passive membrane electrical properties as those due to parameters that are constant near the resting potential of the cell. 2. Explain why membranes behave, electrically, like a resistor in parallel with a capacitor. 3. Explain why open ion channels are electrically equivalent to conductors (or resistors). 4. Use Ohm’s Law to calculate current flow through ion channels. 5. Explain why membranes have capacitive…

Ion channels

Objectives 1. Describe how ion channels function as gated, water-filled pores that selectively increase the permeability of the membrane to certain ions. 2. Describe the function of the selectivity filter in an ion channel. 3. Describe the grouping of ion channels into gene families on the basis of structural homology. 4. Describe the structural features of the voltage-gated channel superfamily. Ion channels are critical determinants of…

Electrical consequences of ionic gradients

Objectives 1. Recognize that the movement of ions can generate an electrical potential difference across a membrane. 2. Define the concept of the equilibrium potential and apply the Nernst equation to calculate it. 3. Describe how the resting membrane potential is generated in a cell and use the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz (GHK) equation to calculate membrane potential. 4. Explain the relationship between the GHK equation and the Nernst…

Osmotic pressure and water movement

Objectives 1. Describe the nature of osmosis. 2. Define osmotic pressure in terms of solute concentration through van’t Hoff’s law. 3. Define the driving forces that control water movement across membranes. 4. Explain how fluid movement across a capillary wall is determined by a balance of hydrostatic and osmotic pressures. 5. Explain how cell volume changes in response to changing concentrations of permeant and impermeant solutes…

Diffusion and permeability

Objectives 1. Define diffusion as the migration of molecules down a concentration gradient. 2. Recognize that diffusion is the result of the purely random movement of molecules. 3. Define the concepts of flux and membrane permeability and the relationship between them. Diffusion is the migration of molecules down a concentration gradient Experience tells us that molecules always move spontaneously from a region where they are more…

Introduction: Homeostasis and cellular physiology

Objectives 1. Recognize the need to maintain the constancy of the internal environment of the body and the concept of homeostasis. 2. Describe the hierarchical view of the body as an ensemble of distinct compartments. 3. Describe the composition and structure of the lipid bilayer membranes that encompass cells and organelles. 4. Explain why the protein-mediated transport processes that regulate the flow of water and solutes…

The Male and Female Reproductive Systems

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1 Describe the general anatomical components of the male and female reproductive system. 2 Map out the organization of the testis, with the Sertoli cells and developing sperm cells within the intralobular compartment, and the Leydig cells and capillary plexus within the interlobular/interstitial compartment. 3 Illustrate the processes of…

The Adrenal Gland

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions : 1 Describe the anatomy and microscopic anatomy of the adrenal gland, including the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla and the three zones of the adrenal cortex. 2 Explain the enzymatic reactions involved in generating norepinephrine and epinephrine and integrate those reactions with the regulation of epinephrine synthesis and…

The Thyroid Gland

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions : 1 Describe the anatomy and histology of the thyroid gland, including the structure of the thyroid follicle. 2 Explain how thyroid hormones are synthesized within the thyroid gland, including the processes of iodine uptake, iodination of tyrosine residues in thyroglobulin by thyroid peroxidase/dual oxidase, and coupling to form…

The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions : 1 Describe the structure and composition of the pituitary gland and its structural and functional relationship to magnocellular and parvocellular hypothalamic neurons. 2 Discuss the mechanisms by which the neurohormones antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin are synthesized, transported, and released by magnocellular neurons. 3 Diagram a basic scheme…

Hormonal Regulation of Calcium and Phosphate Metabolism

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1 Describe the pool of serum calcium and phosphate, including ionized, complexed, and protein bound. Describe the normal concentration ranges of these ions and the major routes of influx and efflux. 2 Discuss the role of the parathyroid gland in the regulation of serum calcium and explain the role…

Hormonal Regulation of Energy Metabolism

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1 Explain the different requirements for and utilization by different cells of fuels during the digestive phase as opposed to the interdigestive and fasting phases. 2 Integrate the structure, synthesis, and secretion of insulin with circulating fuel levels, especially glucose. 3 Utilize the different signaling pathways regulated by insulin…

Introduction to the Endocrine System

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions : 1 Name the major endocrine glands and their hormonal product or products. 2 Map out and differentiate a simple endocrine negative feedback loop and one involving the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary and peripheral endocrine gland, and list the major endocrine glands under each type of feedback loop. 3 Define…

Role of the Kidneys in the Regulation of Acid-Base Balance

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter the student should be able to answer the following questions : 1 How does HCO 3 − operate as a buffer, and why is it an important buffer of the extracellular fluid? 2 How does metabolism of food produce acid and alkali, and what effect does the composition of the diet have on systemic acid-base balance? 3 What is…

Potassium, Calcium, and Phosphate Homeostasis

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions : 1 How does the body maintain K + homeostasis? 2 What is the distribution of K + within the body compartments? Why is this distribution important? 3 What are the hormones and factors that regulate plasma K + levels? Why is this regulation important? 4 How do the…

Control of Body Fluid Osmolality and Volume

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter the student should be able to answer the following questions : 1 Why do changes in water balance alter [Na + ] of extracellular fluid (ECF)? 2 How is the secretion of arginine vasopressin (AVP) controlled by changes in the body fluid osmolality, blood volume, and systemic blood pressure? 3 What cellular events are associated with the AVP action…