LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions: 1 What is the neural innervation of the GI tract, and how is GI function regulated? 2 What are some examples of neural, paracrine, and humoral regulation of GI function? The gastrointestinal (GI) tract consists of the alimentary tract from the mouth to the anus and includes the associated glandular…

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1 How do the components of the mucociliary clearance system function to remove xenobiotic substances and particulates? 2 How does particle shape and size influence their pattern of airway deposition and/or clearance? 3 What are the major mechanisms of particle deposition? 4 How are the mucosal and systemic immune…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions : 1 How is ventilation controlled by the central nervous system? 2 How do the central and peripheral chemoreceptors provide feedback for regulation of ventilation? 3 How are chemoreceptors and pulmonary mechanoreceptors similar and different in regulation of respiration? 4 How do circumstances such as exercise or high altitude…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions : 1 What are the basic gas diffusion principles and how do they affect O 2 and CO 2 absorption and expiration? 2 What are the chemical transport mechanisms of O 2 and CO 2 in blood? 3 How do the O 2 and CO 2 dissociation curves differ?…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1 What are the two types of dead space ventilation, and how does dead space ventilation change with changes in tidal volume? 2 What is the composition of gas in ambient air, the trachea, and the alveolus? How does this composition change when oxygen fraction (FiO 2 ) is…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions : 1 What is the difference between laminar and turbulent air flow? 2 How does airway resistance affect airflow? 3 What factors contribute to airway resistance? 4 When reviewing a spirogram, what is the FEV1? What is the FVC? Where is the peak flow measured? Why is the inspiratory…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions : 1 How is the alveolar pressure different from the pleural pressure? 2 How is the transpleural pressure gradient created? 3 What is the difference between a lung volume and a lung capacity? How is the vital capacity measured by spirometry? Why can’t residual volume be measured by spirometry?…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1 What is the primary function of the upper airways? What is the primary function of the lower airways? What anatomical adaptations exist in the upper and lower respiratory systems to accomplish these functions? 2 How do the pulmonary and bronchial circulatory systems differ in blood flow, blood pressure,…

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1 What are the four major factors that determine cardiac output? Which two of these factors are said to be “coupling factors,” and what is the reason for that description? 2 What is a cardiac function curve, and how is it related to the Frank-Starling mechanism? 3 What is…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1 How do the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems regulate the functions of the heart and vasculature? 2 What factors affect the differential sympathetic regulation of resistance and capacitance vessels? 3 How does the baroreceptor-mediated reflex mimic the operation of skeletal muscle proprioceptor reflex? 4 What are the two…

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1 What physical properties of blood vessels and blood determine hemodynamics? What is Poiseuille’s law? 2 How are stroke volume and pulse pressure related to arterial compliance? How does arterial compliance affect the arterial pulse wave and cardiac work? 3 What are mean, systolic, diastolic, and pulse pressures, and…

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1 How does the action potential contribute to excitability and contraction in heart muscle? 2 What is automaticity, and how does it differ from excitability? How do derangements of these properties contribute to arrhythmias? 3 What is the structural basis of the electrocardiogram? 4 What are preload and afterload…

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1 How does the arrangement of heart and vessels enable unidirectional flow of well-oxygenated blood to the body? 2 How do the differing compositions (smooth muscle, fibrous and elastic tissue) of blood vessels contribute to their respective functions? 3 How does the blood pressure change throughout the circulatory system?…

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1.How does the organization and contraction of smooth muscle vary between tissues to best meet the functional demands in each tissue/organ? 2.What is thick-filament regulation of smooth muscle contraction? 3.What is pharmacomechanical coupling in smooth muscle contraction? 4.What is Ca-sensitization of smooth muscle contraction, and what signaling pathways participate…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1 What structures in cardiac muscle facilitate coordinated contraction of the cardiomyocytes, which is critical for the pumping action of the heart? 2 What is the sequence of events and molecular interactions by which an action potential in the sarcolemma of cardiac muscle leads to muscle contraction? 3 What…

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1 What structures within skeletal muscle fibers participate in the longitudinal generation of force to the tendon, and which structures participate in the lateral transmission of force to the extracellular matrix? 2 How does a mutation/deficiency in dystrophin affect skeletal muscle? 3 What is the sequence of events and…

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1 What are the similarities and differences in the general organizations of the parasympathetic and sympathetic systems? 2 What are the respective actions of the parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation of the eye, and what symptoms arise when the parasympathetic or sympathetic innervation is lost? 3 What are the changes…

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1 What is the basic layering pattern of the neocortex, and how do cortical inputs and outputs align with this layering pattern? What is the functional significance of the variation in the layering pattern between cortical areas? 2 What are the major functions of each of the lobes of…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions : 1 What is a motor neuron, and how are α and γ motor neurons different? 2 What is a motor unit? How does the “size principle” apply to the orderly recruitment of motor units? 3 What is a reflex, and why are reflexes useful for clinical and scientific…

LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1 What is the dark current, and how does the absorption of a photon change it? 2 What are the synaptic pathways for the central and surround portions of the receptive field of an on-center bipolar cell? Of an off-center bipolar cell? 3 What are the receptive field properties…