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The Adrenal Gland

Objectives 1. Discuss the anatomy of the adrenal gland, including the vascular supply and cortical zonation. 2. Diagram the synthesis and regulated release of catecholamines in the chromaffin cell. 3. Explain the action of catecholamines on different adrenergic receptors and the integrated effects of catecholamines during exercise. 4. Outline the differences between the steroidogenic pathways in each zone of the adrenal cortex. 5. Describe the physiologic…

The Thyroid Gland

Objectives 1. Explain the mechanisms of thyroid hormone synthesis. 2. Describe the regulation of thyroid function and the actions of thyroid hormones. 3. Compare and contrast the functions of thyroxine and triiodothyronine. 4. Discuss the peripheral conversion of thyroid hormones by deiodinases. 5. Draw the regulatory feedback loop for the regulation of thyroid function. 6. Understand the etiology, major symptoms, and pathophysiology of the symptoms for…

Hypothalamus-Pituitary Complex

Objectives 1. Discuss the embryology and anatomy of the pituitary gland. 2. Review the function of the neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary), including the synthesis, regulation, and function of two neurohormones: antidiuretic hormone (ADH; also called vasopressin ) and oxytocin. 3. Describe the neurovascular connection between the hypothalamus and the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary). 4. Develop the concept of an endocrine axis. 5. Describe the cytology of the adenohypophysis,…

Calcium and Phosphate Homeostasis

Objectives 1. Describe the structure and synthesis of parathyroid hormone (PTH), the regulation of PTH secretion, and the nature of the PTH receptor. 2. Describe the structure and synthesis of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, the regulation of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D production, and the receptor for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. 3. Discuss the roles of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, bone, and kidneys in calcium (Ca 2+ )/phosphate (Pi) homeostasis. 4. Discuss the…

Energy Metabolism

Objectives 1. Explain energy metabolism in general and how the challenges to provide adequate energy to all cells change during the digestive phase versus the fasting phase. 2. List the primary hormones involved in the regulation of energy metabolic homeostasis, and describe their site of synthesis, regulation of production, and receptor signaling pathways. 3. Diagram the hormonal regulation of specific enzymatic pathways in the hepatocyte, skeletal…

Endocrine Function of the Gastrointestinal Tract

Objectives 1. List the members of the three enteroendocrine hormone families: gastrin, secretin, and motilin. 2. Describe how autonomic innervation and gastric and duodenal hormones regulate gastric acid secretion and gastric motility. 3. Diagram the regulation of secretion from the exocrine pancreas and the gallbladder and their associated ducts from autonomic innervation and duodenal hormones. 4. Explain how motilin regulates gastric and small intestinal contractions during…

Introduction to the Endocrine System

Objectives 1. List the main endocrine glands of the body. 2. List the chemical nature of the major hormones. 3. Describe how the chemical nature influences hormone synthesis, storage, secretion, transport, clearance, mechanism of action, and appropriate route of exogenous hormone administration. 4. Explain the significance of hormone binding to plasma proteins. 5. Describe the major signal transduction pathways, and their mechanism for termination, for different…

Challenge yourself answers

Chapter 1 1 Solution B, negative; or Solution A, positive 2 150 mmol/L urea 3 Increases 4 Upstroke of the action potential 5 25 quanta 6 Botulinus toxin 7 Action potential in nerve fiber; opening Ca 2+ channels in presynaptic terminal; ACh release from presynaptic terminal; binding of ACh to nicotinic receptors; opening ligand-gated ion channels; MEPP; EPP; action potential in muscle fiber 8 Approximately equal…

Reproductive physiology

The gonads are endocrine glands whose functions are to support development and maturation of the male and female germ cells. The male gonads, the testes, are responsible for development and maturation of sperm and synthesis and secretion of the male sex steroid hormone, testosterone. The female gonads, the ovaries, are responsible for development and maturation of ova and synthesis and secretion of the female sex steroid…

Endocrine physiology

The endocrine system, in concert with the nervous system, is responsible for homeostasis. Growth, development, reproduction, blood pressure, concentrations of ions and other substances in blood, and even behavior are all regulated by the endocrine system. Endocrine physiology involves the secretion of hormones and their subsequent actions on target tissues. A hormone is a chemical substance that is classified as a peptide, a steroid, or an…

Gastrointestinal physiology

The functions of the gastrointestinal tract are digestion and absorption of nutrients. To serve these functions, there are four major activities of the gastrointestinal tract. (1) Motility propels ingested food from the mouth toward the rectum and mixes and reduces the size of the food. The rate at which food is propelled through the gastrointestinal tract is regulated to optimize the time for digestion and absorption.…

Acid-base physiology

Acid-base balance is concerned with maintaining a normal hydrogen ion concentration in the body fluids. This balance is achieved by utilization of buffers in extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF), by respiratory mechanisms that excrete carbon dioxide, and by renal mechanisms that reabsorb bicarbonate and secrete hydrogen ions. pH of body fluids The hydrogen ion (H + ) concentration of the body fluids is extremely…

Renal physiology

The kidneys function in several capacities. As excretory organs, the kidneys ensure that those substances in excess or that are harmful are excreted in urine in appropriate amounts. As regulatory organs, the kidneys maintain a constant volume and composition of the body fluids by varying the excretion of solutes and water. Finally, as endocrine organs, the kidneys synthesize and secrete three hormones: renin, erythropoietin, 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, and…

Respiratory physiology

The function of the respiratory system is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the environment and the cells of the body. Fresh air is brought into the lungs during the inspiratory phase of the breathing cycle, oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between inspired air and pulmonary capillary blood, and the air is then expired. Structure of the respiratory system Airways The respiratory system…

Cardiovascular physiology

The primary function of the cardiovascular system is to deliver blood to the tissues, which provides essential nutrients to the cells for metabolism and removes waste products from the cells. The heart serves as the pump, which, by contracting, generates the pressure to drive blood through a series of blood vessels. The vessels that carry blood from the heart to the tissues are the arteries, which…

Neurophysiology

The nervous system is a complex network that allows an organism to communicate with its environment. The network includes sensory components, which detect changes in environmental stimuli, and motor components, which generate movement, contraction of skeletal and smooth muscle, and glandular secretions. Integrative components of the nervous system receive, store, and process sensory information and then orchestrate the appropriate motor responses. Organization of the nervous system…

Autonomic nervous system

The motor (efferent) nervous system has two components: the somatic and the autonomic. These two systems differ in a number of ways but are chiefly distinguished by the types of effector organs they innervate and the types of functions they control. The somatic nervous system is a voluntary motor system under conscious control. Each of its pathways consists of a single motoneuron and the skeletal muscle…

Cellular physiology

Understanding the functions of the organ systems requires profound knowledge of basic cellular mechanisms. Although each organ system differs in its overall function, all are undergirded by a common set of physiologic principles. The following basic principles of physiology are introduced in this chapter: body fluids, with particular emphasis on the differences in composition of intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid (ECF); creation of these concentration differences…