Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1. Describe the general anatomical components of the male and female reproductive system. 2. Map out the organization of the testis, with the Sertoli cells and developing sperm cells within the intralobular compartment, and the Leydig cells and capillary plexus within the interlobular/interstitial compartment. 3. Describe the processes of…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1. Describe the anatomy and microscopic anatomy of the adrenal gland, including the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla and the three zones of the adrenal cortex. 2. Explain the enzymatic reactions involved in generating norepinephrine and epinephrine and integrate those reactions with the regulation of epinephrine synthesis and…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1. Describe the anatomy and histology of the thyroid gland, including the structure of the thyroid follicle. 2. Explain how thyroid hormones are synthesized within the thyroid gland, including the processes of iodine uptake, iodination of tyrosine residues in thyroglobulin by thyroid peroxidase/dual oxidase, and coupling to form T…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1. Describe the structure and composition of the pituitary gland and its structural and functional relationship to magnocellular and parvicellular hypothalamic neurons. 2. Discuss the mechanisms by which the neurohormones antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin are synthesized, transported, and released by magnocellular neurons. 3. Diagram a basic scheme illustrating…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1. Describe the pool of serum calcium and phosphate, including ionized, complexed, and protein bound. Describe the normal concentration ranges of these ions and the major routes of influx and efflux. 2. Discuss the role of the parathyroid gland in the regulation of serum calcium and explain the role…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1. Explain the different requirements for and utilization by different cells of fuels during the digestive phase as opposed to the interdigestive and fasting phases. 2. Integrate the structure, synthesis, and secretion of insulin with circulating fuel levels, especially glucose. 3. Utilize the different signaling pathways regulated by insulin…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1. Name the major endocrine glands and their hormonal product or products. 2. Map out and differentiate a simple endocrine negative feedback loop and one involving the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary and peripheral endocrine gland, and list the major endocrine glands under each type of feedback loop. 3. Define a…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1. How does HCO 3 − operate as a buffer, and why is it an important buffer of the extracellular fluid? 2. How does metabolism of food produce acid and alkali, and what effect does the composition of the diet have on systemic acid-base balance? 3. What is the…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1. How does the body maintain K + homeostasis? 2. What is the distribution of K + within the body compartments? Why is this distribution important? 3. What are the hormones and factors that regulate plasma K + levels? Why is this regulation important? 4. How do the various…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1. Why do changes in water balance result in alterations in the [Na + ] of the extracellular fluid (ECF)? 2. How is the secretion of arginine vasopressin (AVP) controlled by changes in the osmolality of body fluids and in blood volume and pressure? 3. What are the cellular…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1. What three processes are involved in the production of urine? 2. What is the composition of “normal” urine? 3. What transport mechanisms are responsible for NaCl reabsorption by the nephron? Where are they located along the nephron? 4. How is water reabsorption “coupled” to NaCl reabsorption in the…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1. Which structures in the glomerulus are filtration barriers to plasma proteins? 2. What is the physiological significance of the juxtaglomerular apparatus? 3. What blood vessels supply the kidneys? 4. What nerves innervate the kidneys? 5. What is the location of the kidneys, and what are their gross anatomical…

Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter the student should be able to answer the following questions: 1. How does the liver contribute metabolic, detoxification, and excretory functions that are vital to life? 2. What cell types make up the liver, what is their unusual arrangement, and what is the liver's unique portal blood supply? 3. What is the function of bile as an excretory fluid,…