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Answers to Self-Study Problems

Chapter 1 1. Protein hormones are stored within secretory vesicles and are secreted in response to a stimulus. Steroid hormones freely diffuse out of cells. Their synthesis, as opposed to secretion, is regulated by stimuli. 2. Hormone-binding proteins in the serum generally increase the circulating half-life of a hormone. It is the free fraction (i.e., unbound) that is considered to be active. 3. Increasing the GTPase…

Fertilization, Pregnancy, and Lactation

Objectives 1. Describe the synchronization among fertilization, early embryonic events, and the human menstrual cycle. 2. Describe the events involved in fertilization. 3. Explain how implantation and placentation occur. 4. Discuss the endocrine and transport functions of the placenta. 5. Describe the development of the fetal endocrine system. 6. Discuss maternal endocrine changes during pregnancy. 7. Discuss the current models for the initiation and progression of…

The Female Reproductive System

Objectives 1. Describe the anatomy and histology of the ovary and the development of the ovarian follicle. 2. Describe the steroidogenic pathways in the ovarian follicle and the functions of the ovarian steroids, estradiol-17β and progesterone. 3. Diagram the hypothalamus-pituitary-ovarian axis in the context of the monthly menstrual cycle. 4. Explain the changes in the physiology of the female reproductive tract throughout the menstrual cycle. 5.…

The Male Reproductive System

Objectives 1. Describe the organization of the male gonad, the testis, and the process of spermatogenesis, and discuss how this process is supported by Sertoli cells. 2. Describe the steroidogenic pathway of Leydig cells that produces testosterone, the peripheral conversion of testosterone to estradiol-17β or dihydrotestosterone, and the actions of these steroids in men. 3. Explain the regulation of testicular function by the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis. 4.…

Life Cycle of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems

Objectives 1. Map out an overview of meiosis. 2. Describe the general anatomic components of the male and female reproductive systems. 3. Describe the development of the male and female reproductive systems in utero. 4. Describe the regulation of puberty. 5. Describe the changes in adolescent boys and girls that occur during puberty (Tanner stages). 6. Explain the causes and physiologic changes that occur during menopause.…

The Adrenal Gland

Objectives 1. Discuss the anatomy of the adrenal gland, including the vascular supply and cortical zonation. 2. Diagram the synthesis and regulated release of catecholamines in the chromaffin cell. 3. Explain the action of catecholamines on different adrenergic receptors and the integrated effects of catecholamines during exercise. 4. Outline the differences between the steroidogenic pathways in each zone of the adrenal cortex. 5. Describe the physiologic…

The Thyroid Gland

Objectives 1. Explain the mechanisms of thyroid hormone synthesis. 2. Describe the regulation of thyroid function and the actions of thyroid hormones. 3. Compare and contrast the functions of thyroxine and triiodothyronine. 4. Discuss the peripheral conversion of thyroid hormones by deiodinases. 5. Draw the regulatory feedback loop for the regulation of thyroid function. 6. Understand the etiology, major symptoms, and pathophysiology of the symptoms for…

Hypothalamus-Pituitary Complex

Objectives 1. Discuss the embryology and anatomy of the pituitary gland. 2. Review the function of the neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary), including the synthesis, regulation, and function of two neurohormones: antidiuretic hormone (ADH; also called vasopressin ) and oxytocin. 3. Describe the neurovascular connection between the hypothalamus and the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary). 4. Develop the concept of an endocrine axis. 5. Describe the cytology of the adenohypophysis,…

Calcium and Phosphate Homeostasis

Objectives 1. Describe the structure and synthesis of parathyroid hormone (PTH), the regulation of PTH secretion, and the nature of the PTH receptor. 2. Describe the structure and synthesis of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, the regulation of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D production, and the receptor for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. 3. Discuss the roles of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, bone, and kidneys in calcium (Ca 2+ )/phosphate (Pi) homeostasis. 4. Discuss the…

Energy Metabolism

Objectives 1. Explain energy metabolism in general and how the challenges to provide adequate energy to all cells change during the digestive phase versus the fasting phase. 2. List the primary hormones involved in the regulation of energy metabolic homeostasis, and describe their site of synthesis, regulation of production, and receptor signaling pathways. 3. Diagram the hormonal regulation of specific enzymatic pathways in the hepatocyte, skeletal…

Endocrine Function of the Gastrointestinal Tract

Objectives 1. List the members of the three enteroendocrine hormone families: gastrin, secretin, and motilin. 2. Describe how autonomic innervation and gastric and duodenal hormones regulate gastric acid secretion and gastric motility. 3. Diagram the regulation of secretion from the exocrine pancreas and the gallbladder and their associated ducts from autonomic innervation and duodenal hormones. 4. Explain how motilin regulates gastric and small intestinal contractions during…

Introduction to the Endocrine System

Objectives 1. List the main endocrine glands of the body. 2. List the chemical nature of the major hormones. 3. Describe how the chemical nature influences hormone synthesis, storage, secretion, transport, clearance, mechanism of action, and appropriate route of exogenous hormone administration. 4. Explain the significance of hormone binding to plasma proteins. 5. Describe the major signal transduction pathways, and their mechanism for termination, for different…

Challenge yourself answers

Chapter 1 1 Solution B, negative; or Solution A, positive 2 150 mmol/L urea 3 Increases 4 Upstroke of the action potential 5 25 quanta 6 Botulinus toxin 7 Action potential in nerve fiber; opening Ca 2+ channels in presynaptic terminal; ACh release from presynaptic terminal; binding of ACh to nicotinic receptors; opening ligand-gated ion channels; MEPP; EPP; action potential in muscle fiber 8 Approximately equal…

Reproductive physiology

The gonads are endocrine glands whose functions are to support development and maturation of the male and female germ cells. The male gonads, the testes, are responsible for development and maturation of sperm and synthesis and secretion of the male sex steroid hormone, testosterone. The female gonads, the ovaries, are responsible for development and maturation of ova and synthesis and secretion of the female sex steroid…

Endocrine physiology

The endocrine system, in concert with the nervous system, is responsible for homeostasis. Growth, development, reproduction, blood pressure, concentrations of ions and other substances in blood, and even behavior are all regulated by the endocrine system. Endocrine physiology involves the secretion of hormones and their subsequent actions on target tissues. A hormone is a chemical substance that is classified as a peptide, a steroid, or an…

Gastrointestinal physiology

The functions of the gastrointestinal tract are digestion and absorption of nutrients. To serve these functions, there are four major activities of the gastrointestinal tract. (1) Motility propels ingested food from the mouth toward the rectum and mixes and reduces the size of the food. The rate at which food is propelled through the gastrointestinal tract is regulated to optimize the time for digestion and absorption.…