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Cerebral hemisphere and cerebral cortex

The cerebral hemisphere is derived from the embryological telencephalon ( Chapter 1 ). It is the largest part of the forebrain and it reaches the greatest degree of development in the human brain. Superficially, the cerebral hemisphere consists of a layer of grey matter, the cerebral cortex, which is highly convoluted to form a complex pattern of ridges ( gyri ; singular, gyrus ) and furrows…

Thalamus

Rostral to the midbrain lies the forebrain (prosencephalon, cerebrum; see Fig. 1.13 ). The forebrain consists of the bilaterally paired diencephalon and cerebral hemisphere on each side and is by far the largest derivative of the three basic embryological divisions of the brain. The diencephalon is continuous with the rostral part of the midbrain and lies between the brainstem and the cerebral hemisphere. From dorsal to…

Cerebellum

The cerebellum is the largest part of the hindbrain. It originates from the dorsal aspect of the brainstem and overlies the fourth ventricle. The cerebellum is connected to the brainstem by three stout pairs of fibre bundles, called the inferior , middle and superior cerebellar peduncles ( Figs 11.1, 11.4 ; see also Fig. 9.1, Fig. 9.2, Fig. 9.3 ); these join the cerebellum to the…

Cranial nerves and cranial nerve nuclei

There are 12, bilaterally paired, cranial nerves. These carry afferent and efferent nerve fibres between the brain and peripheral structures, principally of the head and neck. The cranial nerves are individually named and numbered (Roman numerals I–XII) according to the rostrocaudal sequence in which they attach to the brain ( Fig. 10.1 and Table 10.1 ): I olfactory II optic III oculomotor IV trochlear V trigeminal VI abducens VII facial VIII vestibulocochlear IX glossopharyngeal X vagus…

Brainstem

The brainstem consists of the medulla oblongata, pons and midbrain. The archaic term ‘bulb’ is applied to the brainstem in compound anatomical names given to nerve fibres originating from, or terminating in, the brainstem (e.g. ‘corticobulbar’ refers to axons that arise in the cerebral cortex and terminate in the brainstem). It is also used clinically to denote the medulla in such terms as ‘bulbar palsy’ and…

Spinal cord

The spinal cord and its associated spinal nerves are of immense functional importance. These structures act to: Receive afferent fibres from sensory receptors of the trunk and limbs Control movements of the trunk and limbs Provide autonomic innervation for most of the viscera The internal organisation of the cord permits many functions to operate in an automatic or reflex fashion. In addition, extensive connections with the…

Coverings of the central nervous system

The central nervous system (CNS) is supported and protected by bone and membranous coverings. The brain is located within the cranial cavity of the skull and the spinal cord lies in the vertebral, or spinal, canal within the vertebral column, or spine. Within their bony coverings, the brain and spinal cord are invested by three concentric membranous envelopes. The outermost membrane is the dura mater, the…

Peripheral nervous system

The peripheral nervous system consists of sensory and motor nerve endings, peripheral nerve trunks, plexuses and ganglia, which link the CNS with other parts of the body. Most of the neurones in the peripheral nervous system are, therefore, either afferent or efferent with respect to the CNS. Nerve endings include sensory receptors, that detect changes in the internal and external environments, and efferent endings, which control…

Cells of the nervous system

The functional unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell or neurone. These cells are highly specialised for the encoding, conduction and transmission of information. Neuroglial cells, or glia, are present in the nervous system in even larger numbers than neurones. Glia do not take part directly in information processing but are, nonetheless, crucial for normal neural function. Other cells are also present in the…

Introduction and overview

The nervous system of all animals functions to detect changes in the internal and external environments and to bring about responses in muscles, organs and glands that are appropriate for the preservation of the individual and the propagation of the species. In relatively primitive species such functions are focused primarily on: Maintenance of the internal environment (homoeostasis) Perception of, and response to, external stimuli/threats Finding food…

THERAPIES AND THERAPEUTIC PROCEDURES

PULMONARY PHARMACOLOGY Pulmonary pharmacology concerns the effects of drugs on the lungs and understanding how drugs used to treat patients with pulmonary diseases work. Much of this pharmacology concerns drugs used to treat obstructive airway diseases, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Two types of drugs are used in the treatment of obstructive airway diseases: Relievers (bronchodilators) give immediate reversal of airway obstruction,…

DISEASES AND PATHOLOGY

Plate 4-1 Open full size image CONGENITAL DEFORMITIES OF THE THORACIC CAGE PECTUS EXCAVATUM Pectus excavatum is also called funnel chest, chonechondrosternon, or trichterbrust. It is a deformity of the anterior chest wall characterized by depression of the lower sternum and adjacent cartilages. The lowest point of the depression is at the junction of the xiphoid process and the body of the sternum. The trait is…

DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURES

TESTS OF PULMONARY FUNCTION RADIOLOGIC EXAMINATION OF THE LUNGS Chest radiography remains the primary imaging modality for initial evaluation of patients with suspected chest disease and in many cases not only identifies abnormalities but also allows a specific determination of the nature of the disease present. ROUTINE EXAMINATION (see Plates 3-4 to 3-6 ) In most imaging centers, radiographs are no longer recorded on film but…

PHYSIOLOGY

PULMONARY MECHANICS AND GAS EXCHANGE The major function of the lung is to deliver oxygen to and remove carbon dioxide from the blood as it passes through the pulmonary capillary bed. This function is achieved through a series of complex and highly integrated series of processes. The first step in this essential gas exchange process is the contraction of the inspiratory muscles, producing the force (pressure…

ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The respiratory system is made up of the structures involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the atmosphere, so-called external respiration . The exchange of gases between the blood in the capillaries of the systemic circulation and the tissues in which these capillaries are located is referred to as internal respiration . The respiratory system consists of the…

Spine

Cervical Spine Axial 1 Pathologic Process Note on these images that the nasopharynx is often seen on cervical spine imaging. The neuroradiologist should always check for symmetry of the Eustachian tube opening and fossa of Rosenmüller just anterior to the longus capitis muscle to ensure that no nasopharyngeal lesion is present (see Chapter 13 ). Imaging Technique Consideration Spinal imaging can be daunting at first due…