Cerebrum: Lateral Views Cerebrum: Medial Views Cerebrum: Inferior View You’re Reading a Preview Become a Clinical Tree membership for Full access and enjoy Unlimited articles Become membership If you are a member. Log in here
1 Introduction The head and neck area offers a unique challenge for students because of the density of small neurovascular structures; the complexity of its bony features, especially the skull; and the compactness of its anatomy. The head protects the brain, participates in communication and expresses our emotions, and houses the special senses (sight, sound, balance, smell, and taste). The neck connects the head to the…
1 Introduction The upper limb is part of the appendicular skeleton and includes the shoulder, arm, forearm, and hand. It is continuous with the lower neck and is suspended from the trunk at the shoulder. It is anatomically and clinically convenient and beneficial to divide the limb into its functional muscle compartments and to review the nerve(s) and vessels supplying these compartments. Thus, for each component…
1 Introduction As with the upper limb in Chapter 7 , this chapter approaches our study of the lower limb by organizing its anatomical structures into functional compartments. Although the upper limb is organized into two functional compartments (extensor and flexor compartments), the thigh and leg each are organized into three functional compartments, with their respective muscles and neurovascular bundles. The lower limb subserves the following…
1 Introduction The bowl-shaped pelvic cavity is continuous superiorly with the abdomen and bounded inferiorly by the perineum, the region between the proximal thighs. The bones of the pelvic girdle demarcate the following two regions: Greater or false pelvis: the lower portion of the abdomen that lies between the flared iliac crests. Lesser or true pelvis: demarcated by the pelvic brim, sacrum, and coccyx, and contains…
1 Introduction The abdomen is the region between the thorax superiorly and the pelvis inferiorly. The abdomen is composed of the following: Layers of skeletal muscle that line the abdominal walls and assist in respiration and, by increasing intraabdominal pressure, facilitate micturition (urination), defecation (bowel movement), and childbirth. The abdominal cavity is a peritoneal lined cavity that is continuous with the pelvic cavity inferiorly and contains…
1 Introduction The thorax lies between the neck and abdomen, encasing the great vessels, heart, and lungs, and provides a conduit for structures passing between the head and neck superiorly and the abdomen, pelvis, and lower limbs inferiorly. Functionally, the thorax and its encased visceral structures are involved in the following: Protection: the thoracic cage and its muscles protect the vital structures in the thorax. Support:…
1 Introduction The back forms the axis (central line) of the human body and consists of the vertebral column, spinal cord, supporting muscles, and associated tissues (skin, connective tissues, vasculature, and nerves). A hallmark of human anatomy is the concept of “segmentation,” and the back is a prime example. Segmentation and bilateral symmetry of the back will become obvious as you study the vertebral column, the…
1 Terminology Anatomical Position The study of anatomy requires a clinical vocabulary that defines position, movements, relationships, and planes of reference, as well as the systems of the human body. The study of anatomy can be by body region or by body organ systems . Generally, courses of anatomy in the United States approach anatomical study by regions, integrating all applicable body systems into the study…
OSMOTIC DIURETICS ACTIONS AND MECHANISM In the nephron, water reabsorption is a passive phenomenon that relies on the transcellular osmotic gradients established during the reabsorption of solutes, especially sodium. Osmotic diuretics alter these gradients to produce diuresis. After intravenous administration, such agents undergo filtration at the glomerulus but then cannot be reabsorbed. As sodium and water are reabsorbed, osmotic diuretics become more concentrated in the tubular…
BENIGN RENAL TUMORS There are several different kinds of benign renal tumors, which may originate from a wide range of cell types. Solid renal tumors, however, are generally malignant, with the probability of malignancy strongly correlating with tumor size. For example, one series found that masses greater than 4 cm in diameter were malignant in more than 90% of cases, whereas those less than 1 cm in diameter…
VOIDING DYSFUNCTION Urinary incontinence affects an estimated 13 million adults in the United States, 85% of whom are women. The problem is especially common among nursing home residents, affecting 50%, and older women, affecting 15% to 30% of women over 65 years old who live in retirement communities. An estimated $15 to $20 billion is spent on this problem each year in the United States alone.…
RENAL INJURIES The kidney is injured in up to 5% to 10% of all severe trauma cases. At most urban trauma centers, approximately 80% to 90% of kidney injuries are blunt, while the remainder are penetrating. Children are more likely to sustain blunt renal injuries because of the relative large size of their kidneys, scant perirenal fat, and incomplete rib ossification. Blunt renal injuries are often…
OBSTRUCTIVE UROPATHY Obstructive uropathy encompasses the numerous sequelae that may be observed when there is an anatomic or functional blockage of the natural flow of urine. Obstructions may occur at any level in the urinary tract, and the clinical signs and symptoms often provide information about both location and severity. Obstructions may be classified as congenital or acquired, acute or chronic, partial or complete, and intrinsic…
CYSTITIS Urinary tract infections (UTIs) can involve the bladder alone (lower UTI, also known as acute cystitis) or extend to the renal pelvis and parenchyma (upper UTI, also known as acute pyelonephritis). If untreated, such infections can progress in vulnerable hosts to systemic bacterial disease, known as urosepsis. Although “cystitis” refers, in the strictest sense, to inflammation of the bladder, by far the most common cause…
OVERVIEW OF ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY Acute kidney injury (AKI) consists of any precipitous decline in renal filtration function, which can occur secondary to disease affecting the renal vasculature, renal parenchyma, or urine collecting system. Such a decline is often first evidenced as an increase in serum creatinine concentration, which may be accompanied by normal urine output, oliguria, or anuria. DEFINITION Over time, various criteria have been…
BASIC FUNCTIONS AND HOMEOSTASIS Blood enters the kidneys in a series of branching vessels that give rise to afferent arterioles. Each afferent arteriole leads to a tuft of glomerular capillaries. Plasma and small, non–protein bound solutes are filtered across the walls of the glomerular capillaries into Bowman's space, the initial portion of the nephron. From there, the filtrate is conveyed through the remaining segments of the…
DEVELOPMENT OF KIDNEY The kidneys develop from the intermediate mesoderm, which is located on each side of the embryo between the paraxial (somitic) and lateral plate mesoderm. After the fourth week, during which the embryo undergoes a complex folding process, the intermediate mesoderm forms a lateral nephrogenic cord and a medial genital (gonadal) ridge. The nephrogenic cord gives rise to three successive kidney precursors, while the…
KIDNEY: POSITION AND RELATIONS POSITION AND SHAPE The kidneys are paired retroperitoneal organs that lie lateral to the upper lumbar vertebrae. In the relaxed, supine position, their superior poles are level with the twelfth thoracic vertebra, while their inferior poles are level with the third lumbar vertebra and about 2.5 cm superior to the iliac crest. On deep inspiration in the erect position, however, both kidneys may…
Plate 13-1 Open full size image POSITION AND STRUCTURE The breast is shown in its partially dissected state in the upper part of the plate and below in sagittal section. The size of the breast is variable, but in most instances it extends from the second through the sixth rib, and from the sternum to the anterior axillary line, with an axillary tail in the outer…