Introduction Low back pain is one of the leading causes of emergency visits in the United States, leading to billions of dollars in loss of productivity each year. Most Americans will experience back pain during their lifetime, and a majority…
Introduction Although first described in 1952 by Brian et al., cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM) continues to be a frequently misdiagnosed pathology. The insidious onset is often mistaken as part of the normal aging process, while patients often have progressive and…
Introduction Stenosis of the lumbar spine can occur at different areas of the lumbar spine. Stenosis of the lumbar spine is most common at L4-5 level but can also occur at L3-4, L2-3, L5-S1, and L1-2 in decreasing frequency. Stenosis…
Introduction C1-C2 pannus most commonly results from both chronic instability of the atlanto-axial segment and an inflammatory process of the atlanto-axial joint (AAJ). These degenerative processes are typically associated with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and cause ligamentous structural destruction. RA affects…
Introduction Pseudoarthrosis is a common complication following fusion operations. It can be found in both instrumented and noninstrumented fusions but more commonly occurs following noninstrumented fusion. Pseudoarthrosis is defined as symptomatic nonunion after 1 year of a fusion surgery. The…
Introduction The cervical spine is composed of seven vertebrae. With the exception of the first cervical vertebrae, each vertebra has an associated nerve that exits the foramen above the named vertebrae. Additionally, the vertebral artery enters the foramen transversarium typically…
Introduction Cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM) is the most common type of spinal cord dysfunction in adults. This chronic spinal degeneration is characterized by intervertebral disc herniations, abnormal ligament and joint hypertrophy, and ossification. It almost invariably results in progressive neurological…
Introduction Thoracic disc herniations (TDHs) are commonly found on imaging and occur in up to 37% of asymptomatic individuals. A large proportion of TDHs are giant (occupying >40% of the spinal canal) and calcified with tendencies to adhere and erode…
Introduction Ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament (OPLL) is one of many conditions classified as enthesopathies, which result from progressive inflammation of the tendons and ligaments of the spine followed by degeneration and calcification. Other examples of enthesopathies include ossification…
Introduction Lumbar spinal stenosis is one of the most common diagnoses in the United States and worldwide that predominantly affects the aging population, with reported prevalence estimates up to 47%. Advanced disease results in back pain and neurological compression. Lumbar…