Summary of Key Points The consideration of global anatomy, commonly referred to as spinal alignment or spinal balance, is important in achieving optimal surgical outcomes. Transverse pedicle width is the limiting variable in pedicle screw diameter. Width is usually smallest…
Summary of Key Points Bone is important for structure, locomotion, protection of vital organs, and mineral metabolism. Osteoporosis is a common condition resulting from decreased bone mineral density and poor bone quality, increasing fracture risk. Osteomalacia results from poor bone…
Summary of Key Points The muscles of the spine provide a “dynamic tension band” that is critical for optimum “balance” of the spine and a curvilinear plane that “loads” the discs, bones, and muscles. Optimum strength and fiber length provide…
Summary of Key Points The intervertebral disc (IVD) is composed of the inner gelatinous nucleus pulposus (NP) and the outer annulus fibrosus (AF) and flanked by the cartilaginous end plates. The NP is composed primarily of various types of proteoglycans…
Summary of Key Points Computational spine models are valuable options for conducting comprehensive biomechanical analyses, especially when clinical and experimental approaches are difficult or impossible. Multibody models and finite element models are complementary techniques used to analyze the biomechanics of…
Summary of Key Points The natural spinal curvature allows for horizontal gaze while standing in an upright position. The development and maintenance of spinal anatomy and posture are dynamic and vary by individual. Beyond the craniocervical junction, there are seven…
Summary of Key Points The development of instrumentation for internal fixation of the spine has dramatically improved the surgeon’s ability to successfully provide surgical intervention for a wide variety of spinal disorders. Internal fixation leads to higher fusion rates and…
Summary of Key Points The field of spine biomechanics has evolved from the time of antiquity to the present. The first 2000 years provided the rich seeds with requisite advancements in spinal anatomy, neurophysiology, mathematics, and physics. Since the 20th…
Summary of Key Points Although most advances in spine surgery occurred in the 19th and 20th centuries, their roots date back several thousand years. During the antique period, some special spine disorders were described and treated using drugs and orthotics.…