See also Herbal medicines General information Genera in the family of Arecaceae ( Table 1 ), also known as Palmaceae, include various types of palm. Table 1 Genera of Arecaceae Acoelorraphe (palm) Cocos (coconut palm) Pritchardia (pritchardia) Acrocomia (acrocomia) Copernicia (carnauba wax palm) Pseudophoenix (pseudophoenix) Aiphanes (aiphanes) Corypha (talipot palm) Ptychosperma (ptychosperma) Archontophoenix (archontophoenix) Dypsis (butterfly palm) Raphia (raffia palm) Areca (areca) Elaeis (oil palm) Rhapidophyllum…

See also Herbal medicines General information Genera in the family of Araliaceae ( Table 1 ) include aralia, ginseng, and ivy. Table 1 Genera of Araliaceae Aralia (spikenard, angelica) Kalopanax (castor aralia) Pseudopanax (pseudopanax) Cheirodendron (cheirodendron) Meryta (meryta) Reynoldsia (reynoldsia) Dendropanax (dendropanax) Munroidendron (munroidendron) Schefflera (schefflera) Eleutherococcus (ginseng) Oplopanax (oplopanax) Tetraplasandra (tetraplasandra) Fatsia (fatsia) Polyscias (aralia) Tetrapanax (tetrapanax) Hedera (ivy) Panax (ginseng) You’re Reading a Preview…

General information Because of increased mortality (see Death below), aprotinin was temporarily withdrawn worldwide in 2007, after consultation with the German Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (BfArM), the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Health Canada, and other health authorities, pending the final results from the Canadian BART trial; it was permanently withdrawn in May 2008 [ , ]. Aprotinin is a fibrinolytic agent,…

See also Antidysrhythmic drugs General information The pharmacology, clinical pharmacology, clinical uses, efficacy, and adverse effects of aprindine have been extensively reviewed [ ]. The adverse effects of aprindine most commonly affect the central nervous system. However, other less common but serious and potentially fatal adverse effects (neutropenia and liver damage) occur, and these limit its usefulness. Aprindine is metabolized by CYP2D6, and one would therefore…

General information Aprepitant is a neurokinin-1 (NK 1 ) receptor antagonist. Substance P, a regulatory peptide that is the preferred endogenous ligand at NK 1 receptors, is found in the gastrointestinal tract (vagal afferents) and areas of the central nervous system thought to be involved in the vomiting reflex (including the nucleus tractus solitarius and area postrema). Aprepitant is a substrate and a weak inhibitor of…

General information Apomorphine, a very potent non-selective dopamine agonist, which acts on both D1 and D2 receptors, has been used with some success in Parkinson’s disease, particularly in patients with severe long-term adverse effects of levodopa. Because of first-pass metabolism it has to be used subcutaneously, sublingually, or intranasally. Its adverse effects resemble those of levodopa. Yawning, somnolence, nausea, and vomiting can all result from the…

See also Herbal medicines General information Genera in the family of Apocynaceae ( Table 1 ) include dogbane, oleander, and periwinkle. Table 1 Genera of Apocynaceae Adenium (desert rose) Landolphia (landolphia) Allamanda (allamanda) Lepinia Alstonia (alstonia) Macrosiphonia (rock trumpet) Alyxia (alyxia) Nerium (oleander) Amsonia (blue star) Ochrosia (yellow wood) Anechites (anechites) Pentalinon (pentalinon) Angadenia (pineland golden trumpet) Plumeria (plumeria) Apocynum (dogbane) Prestonia (prestonia) Carissa (carissa) Pteralyxia…

See also Factor Xa inhibitors, direct General information Apixaban is a follow-up compound with high oral systemic availability (50–85%) and a half-life of about 12 hours. Apixaban is cleared through renal (25%) and fecal routes and is given twice daily. It has been tested in the prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism, for the prevention of stroke or systemic embolism in patients with atrial fibrillation, and…

See also Herbal medicines General information There are about 100 genera in the family of Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae), including a variety of spices and vegetables, such as angelica, anise, carrot, celery, chervil, coriander, cumin, dill, fennel, parsley, and parsnip ( Table 1 ). Table 1 The genera of Apiaceae Aciphylla (fierce Spaniard) Aegopodium (goutweed) Aethusa (aethusa) Aletes (Indian parsley) Ammi (ammi) Ammoselinum (sand parsley) Anethum (dill)…

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See also Hymenoptera venoms General information Antivenoms (also called antivenins) have been developed against a variety of venomous creatures, including rattlesnakes, scorpions, and snakes. Scorpion antivenom There are over 1700 species of scorpions worldwide, of which those in the Buthidae family are the most dangerous. Scorpion venoms contain many toxins with different pharmacological actions, and antitoxins to the whole venoms are required rather than antidotes to…

See also individual agents General information Antituberculosis drugs are classified as first-line and second-line.First-line drugs are ethambutol, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, and rifampicin; streptomycin, once first-line, is no longer used. Second-line drugs are capreomycin, clofazimine, cycloserine, ethionamide and propionamide, fluoroquinolones, kanamycin, para-aminosalicylic acid, rifabutin, and thiacetazone. As a rule, a regimen of two, three, or four of the five first-line antituberculosis drugs (isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide, ethambutol, and streptomycin)…

General information Antithymocyte globulin is a polyclonal antibody directed against T lymphocyte surface antigens. It is used as an induction immunosuppressant and for treatment of acute rejection after transplantation. Major adverse effects include sensitization, fever, nausea, anaphylactic reactions, and higher incidences of cytomegalovirus and Epstein–Barr virus infections. Drug studies Observational studies Antithymocyte globulin has recently been used to treat myelodysplastic syndrome. In a phase II trial…

General information Antithrombin III is a small glycoprotein anticoagulant that inactivates several enzymes of the coagulation system and accounts for most of the antithrombin activity in plasma and also inhibits other proteolytic enzymes. It circulates in the plasma and inactivates thrombin. Hereditary or acquired antithrombin III deficiency results in thromboembolism. Antithrombin III is used to treat congenital antithrombin deficiency [ ], which is of two types.…

General information Antimony is a brittle, bluish-white, metallic element (symbol Sb; atomic no 51). The symbol Sb comes from the Latin word stibium. Antimony is found in such minerals as dyscrasite, jamesonite, kermesite, pyrargyrite, stephanite, tetrahedrite, and zinkenite. The Arabic word for antimony stibnite or antimony trisulfate was kohl, from which the word alcohol ultimately derives [ ]. Antimonious ores were sometimes confused with lead ores,…

See also individual agents General information Histamine is both a local hormone and a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. It is synthesized in neurons and mast cells. There are H 1 , H 2 , and H 3 receptors in the central nervous system, but they differ in their localization, biochemical machinery, functions, and affinities for histamine; they are particularly important in maintaining a state…

See also Antifungal azoles [for systemic use] General Information All the topically used azoles can cause local irritation, burning, and, if used intravaginally, burning, swelling, and discomfort during micturition. There is cross-sensitivity between econazole, enilconazole, miconazole, and probably all other phenethylimidazoles. Contact allergy to topical imidazoles is rare, considering how commonly they are used. The imidazole derivatives most often reported to be allergens are miconazole, econazole,…

See also individual agents; Antifungal azoles and other antifungal drugs for topical use General information The antifungal azoles are a class of synthetic compounds that have one or more azole rings and a more or less complex side chain attached to one of the nitrogen atoms. They are either imidazole or triazole derivatives. The imidazoles miconazole and ketoconazole were the first azoles developed for systemic treatment…

See also individual agents General information Some of the drugs that are used to treat epilepsy can be grouped into classes (carbamazepine and its analogue oxcarbazepine, barbiturates, hydantoins, benzodiazepines, and succinimides), while others (for example valproate, felbamate, gabapentin, levetiracetam, lamotrigine, tiagabine, topiramate, vigabatrin, and zonisamide) stand on their own. Individual drugs differ in their spectra of activity and in adverse effects profiles. For adverse effects that…

General information Classification Drugs used in dysrhythmias can be classified in different ways, the usual classification being according to their effects on the cardiac action potential [ ], as shown in Table 1 . Table 1 Electrophysiological classification of antidysrhythmic drugs Class I Ia Ib Ic Quinidine Lidocaine Flecainide Procainamide Aprindine Encainide Disopyramide Mexiletine Lorcainide Phenytoin Propafenone Tocainide (also has class II activity) Class II Beta-adrenoceptor…