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Age-Related Changes in the Spine

The spines of older individuals have both the changes of normal aging and the changes of “degeneration.” In the absence of accepted criteria to distinguish aging and degeneration, the features that characterize the majority of individuals at a specified age can be taken to represent normal aging rather than degeneration. The anatomic, chemical, and imaging features of the aging spine are discussed here, and the degenerative…

The Normal Spinal Cord and Meninges

I. THE SPINAL CORD The spinal cord is the segment of the central nervous system that lies within the spinal canal caudal to the foramen magnum ( Figs. 5-1 to 5-3 ). The top of the spinal cord is taken to be the plane immediately rostral to the emergence of the C1 nerve roots. The bottom of the spinal cord merges into the filum terminale at…

The Normal Spinal Column: Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral, and Coccygeal Segments

The spinal column consists of multiple segmented osseous vertebrae, the intervertebral discs interposed between these segments, and the ligaments and joints that bind the segments together. The spine has 32 to 35 vertebral segments, traditionally considered as 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 3 to 5 coccygeal segments. The relative lengths of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral spines are in proportion as…

The Normal Spinal Column: Overview and Cervical Spine

The spinal column consists of multiple segmented osseous vertebrae, the intervertebral discs interposed between these segments, and the ligaments and joints that bind the segments together. The spine has 32 to 35 vertebral segments, traditionally considered as 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 3 to 5 coccygeal segments. The relative lengths of the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral spines are in proportion as…

Bladder Calculi

KEY FACTS Terminology Concretions of mineral salts within bladder lumen Classified as migrant, primary (idiopathic), and secondary Outlet obstruction is primary mechanism for 70% of adult bladder stones You’re Reading a Preview Become a Clinical Tree membership for Full access and enjoy Unlimited articles Become membership If you are a member. Log in here

Bladder Schistosomiasis

KEY FACTS Terminology Bilharziasis, parasitic infection Infection of urinary system by parasite Schistosoma haematobium You’re Reading a Preview Become a Clinical Tree membership for Full access and enjoy Unlimited articles Become membership If you are a member. Log in here

Bladder Exstrophy

KEY FACTS Terminology Classic bladder exstrophy (CBE): Low midline abdominal wall defect with exposure of bladder plate & urethra + low-set umbilicus Split lower abdominal skin & rectus abdominis + pubic symphysis diastasis Bifid clitoris in females, epispadias in males Deficient genitalia & pelvic floor muscles Epispadias: Abnormal dorsal urethral opening With CBE, entire dorsal urethra open with abnormal bladder sphincter You’re Reading a Preview Become…

Introduction to the Bladder

Embryology and Anatomy The bladder is a hollow distensible viscus with a strong muscular wall. Embryologically, it forms from the urogenital sinus, which is contiguous with the allantois (a hindgut diverticulum that extends to the umbilicus). The allantois normally involutes by the 2nd month of gestation, forming the median umbilical ligament. Any persistent segments of the allantoic channel are called urachal remnants. The distal ureters are…

Ureterectasis of Pregnancy

KEY FACTS Terminology Physiologic dilatation of ureter and renal collecting system during pregnancy You’re Reading a Preview Become a Clinical Tree membership for Full access and enjoy Unlimited articles Become membership If you are a member. Log in here

Polyps

KEY FACTS Terminology Synonym: Ureteral fibroepithelial polyp Definition: Benign mesodermal lesion with hyperplastic fibroconnective stromal core and normal urothelial lining You’re Reading a Preview Become a Clinical Tree membership for Full access and enjoy Unlimited articles Become membership If you are a member. Log in here

Ureteral Trauma

KEY FACTS Terminology Injury of ureter from blunt, penetrating, or iatrogenic trauma You’re Reading a Preview Become a Clinical Tree membership for Full access and enjoy Unlimited articles Become membership If you are a member. Log in here