Exercise physiology is the identification and study of the physiologic mechanisms underlying physical activity and the body's response and adaptation to exercise. Most training programs used by athletes, whether they are for strength or endurance, aim to change the underlying…
The human body possesses a tremendous healing potential. However, despite its innate restorative capacity, in many instances the body's ability to heal is limited. Musculoskeletal tissues such as tendon, ligament, and cartilage present challenges to clinicians because these tissues tend…
Sports injuries in athletes are commonly associated with injury to soft tissues, specifically tendons, ligaments, menisci, and cartilage. Common tendon and ligament injuries in the physically active population include rotator cuff tears, Achilles tendinopathy, anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears, and…
Graft tissue is widely used in sports medicine for soft tissue reconstruction and augmentation of ligaments and tendons. Understanding the physiology of fixation and incorporation of tendon and/or bone within the tunnels is important for the surgeon, because this knowledge…
Biomechanics is an interdisciplinary field that uses the principles of mechanics to improve the human body through design, development, and analysis of equipment, systems, and therapies. This biomechanical knowledge can help in understanding the loading of the musculoskeletal system and…
Tendon and Ligament Structure Tendons and ligaments are both dense, regularly arranged connective tissues. The surface of the tendon is enveloped in a white, glistening, synovial-like membrane, called the epitenon , which is continuous on its inner surface with the…
The Tarsal Navicular Anatomy The tarsal navicular lies in the uppermost portion of the medial longitudinal arch of the foot between the head of the talus and the three cuneiforms. The proximal concave articular surface and convex distal articular surface…
The talus’s multiple articulations facilitate complex motion of the ankle and hindfoot critical to the biomechanics of gait, earning its title “the universal joint of the foot.” While fractures of the talus are uncommon, accounting for approximately 1% of all…
Calcaneal fractures usually result from high-energy mechanisms and can be devastating injuries. Early complications and long-term sequelae are common. The optimal treatment for displaced intraarticular fractures remains controversial. Surgical treatment with the extensile lateral approach has reliable radiographic and functional…
Ankle fractures are a commonly encountered injury to the lower extremity and account for approximately 9% of all fractures. The incidence of ankle fractures has been increasing among all age groups, and the mechanism of injury is most commonly a…