Introduction The choroid is a highly vascular, pigmented tissue located between the retina and the sclera. The term is derived from the Greek words “form” and “membrane.” It measures 0.22 mm at the posterior pole and from 0.1 to 0.15…
Anatomy, Embryology, and Histology of the Choroid The choroid is a pigmented and highly vascularized component of the uveal tract in the eye, allowing for light absorption and providing oxygen and nutrients to the outer retina. Anatomically, the choroid extends…
Introduction The choroid is sandwiched between the sclera and Bruch’s membrane (BM) of the eye. It is the predominant vascular bed of the eye and contains diverse cell types forming the stroma. It performs a number of anatomical, physiological, photoprotective,…
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Abstract The appearance of the ageing face is a summation of foundation volume loss from recession of underlying skeletal support; skin volume loss from aging, ultraviolet damage and ‘rubbing’, and sagging of support muscles with gravity. Botulinum toxin is ideal…
Abstract Botulinum toxin can be effective in balancing the muscles of the perioral area as they age. The author avoids paralysing the muscles of the upper lip by eliminating upper lip rhytids with CO 2 laser resurfacing and fine fillers…
Abstract A thorough knowledge of the anatomy of the forehead and scalp is essential. Movement of muscles on the forehead are relayed through the brain and redirected to affect the innervation of the full forehead and scalp. This knowledge is…
Abstract The crow’s feet are the wrinkles at the corners of the eyes due to contraction of the orbicularis oculi when smiling. The same part of the muscle is responsible for depressing the lateral part of the eyebrows and for…
Abstract Patients with neuromuscular diseases, such as myasthenia gravis, must be warned that botulinum toxin could potentiate their weakness. Some drugs, such as aminoglycosides and anaesthetic agents, will interfere with the effect of botulinum toxin and could result in an…