Introduction The balance between apoptotic signals and survival signals determines the fate of neurons after cerebral ischemia. Unobstructed activation of caspases in pathological conditions will lead to cell death; however, activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling pathway may counteract the…
Introduction More than two decades after their discovery, Rho-associated kinase (ROCK) is at the center stage of therapeutic development in many diverse diseases ranging from cardiovascular to neurological, metabolic, and ocular disorders. Because ROCK activity is pivotal in the regulation…
Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling Cells respond to their extracellular environment via common intracellular signaling systems. Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are serine–threonine kinases that mediate intracellular signaling involved in regulating protein and cell functioning related to membrane, intra- and intercellular processes…
Acknowledgment This work was supported by NIGMS grant GM103340 and NINDS grant NS046741 (NGB). Platelet-Activating Factor and Other Bioactive Lipids A target for cerebral ischemia is phospholipids from plasma membranes of neural cells. Phospholipid molecules of membranes from neurons, glial…
Introduction Loss of blood flow during stroke creates significant cellular stress via a host of stresses including hypoxia, glucose deprivation, and oxidative stress. Preconditioning studies teach us that homeostatic programs to cell stress are rapidly engaged via activation of preexisting…
Introduction Protein kinases are key regulators of cell processes. Protein kinases are defined as enzymes that transfer a phosphate group onto an acceptor amino acid in a substrate protein. This process is called phosphorylation and can be reversed by phosphatases,…
Oxidative stress plays a critical role in cerebral ischemic injury and occurs when there is an overproduction of free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS) beyond the ability of a biologic system to neutralize their adverse effects. ROS include oxygen…
Introduction A long-standing goal of stroke research has been to elucidate the mechanisms responsible for the high vulnerability of brain tissue to hypoxic-ischemic insults. Understanding these mechanisms will aid the development of specific countermeasures that could be employed in the…
Introduction The mitochondrion keeps a continuous workflow for oxidation of energy substances that are obtained from the blood to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for cellular functions. Neural cells consume this energy derived from the ATP hydrolysis for maintaining ionic gradients…
Acknowledgments The neurovascular unit concept was developed by the entire research community, not just any one single scientist. The author apologizes to many colleagues who could not be included as coauthors and whose work could not be cited, due to…