The normal serum sodium level is 135–145 mmol Hyponatraemia refers to serum sodium levels of <135 mmol/L, and serum sodium of <120 mmol/L is considered severe. Causes Hypovolaemic ● Gastrointestinal losses ● Diarrhoea ● Vomiting ● Enterocutaneous fistula ● Renal…
The normal serum sodium level is 135–145 mmol Hypernatraemia refers to a serum sodium level >145 mmol Causes Decreased water intake ● Confusion You’re Reading a Preview Become a Clinical Tree membership for Full access and enjoy Unlimited articles Become…
Hypokalaemia is a reduced blood level of potassium <3.5 mmol Causes You’re Reading a Preview Become a Clinical Tree membership for Full access and enjoy Unlimited articles Become membership If you are a member. Log in here
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Hypoglycaemia is defined as a plasma glucose <2.5 mmol The actual glucose level at which symptoms develop varies markedly. Causes Drugs ● Insulin ● Sulfonylurea ● Alcohol ● Beta blockers ● Quinolones ● Pentamidine ● Quinine You’re Reading a Preview…
Hyperglycaemia is defined as a plasma glucose >7.0 mmol By far the most common cause is diabetes mellitus. Causes Endocrine ● Diabetes mellitus (types 1 and 2) You’re Reading a Preview Become a Clinical Tree membership for Full access and…
Unintentional weight loss is often a manifestation of significant underlying disease and should never be ignored. Causes Systemic disease ● Malignancy ● Cardiac failure ● Chronic respiratory disease ● Renal failure ● Liver failure ● Malabsorption ● Connective tissue disease…
Weight gain is extremely common and the most frequent cause is simple obesity. Excessive weight gain itself has deleterious effects on general health. With the exception of simple obesity and pregnancy, other conditions only account for ,1% of patients presenting…
Vomiting is the forceful ejection of gastric contents through the mouth. It occurs when the vomiting centre in the medulla oblongata is stimulated. This may be due to direct stimulation of the centre (central vomiting) or via afferent fibres (reflex…
Voice disorders can be caused by a number of conditions. Change in the quality of the voice ranges from mild hoarseness to aphonia. It is important to exclude laryngeal carcinoma, which is easily treated in the early stages but has…