Chapter 1 Histology 1. A, B 2. A, C, E 3. B, E 4. A, B, D, E 5. 1. B. Histology, 2. A. Tissue, 3. C. Epithelium, 4. G. Light microscopy using wax-embedded sections, 5. H. Fixation Chapter 2 The cell 1. A, B, C 2. A, C, D, E 3. A, E 4. A, B, D, E 5. A, C, D, E 6. A,…

Chapter 1 Histology 1. Which of the following are types of empirical staining methods? Select all that apply . A. van Gieson B. Haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) C. Periodic acid–Schiff (PAS) D. Alkaline phosphatase enzyme histochemistry E. Immunoperoxidase 2. Which of the following are characteristics of resin-embedded histology? Select all that apply . A. Allows a higher resolution than other preparations for use in routine light…

Chapter 2 Case 2.1 A child with muscle weakness A 2-month-old child is admitted to hospital because his parents are concerned that he has been experiencing difficulty with feeding and becoming breathless. Examination reveals proximal muscle weakness. There is no clinical evidence that the peripheral nerves are involved. Routine blood investigations are normal. In particular, serum creatine kinase levels are normal (the enzyme is released from…

Introduction A vital function of the nervous system is the gathering of sensory information. Sensory information is derived from a variety of specialized sensory nerve endings. These include: Sensory endings in the skin to detect touch (fine touch, pressure), pain and temperature (see Chapter 18 ) Tendon endings and muscle spindles to detect movement and position of the limbs Chemoreceptive organs, such as the carotid body…

Introduction The skin is an extensive organ covering the exterior of the body. It varies in structure from site to site according to specific functions, which include: Protection from external damaging agents (infective, mechanical, thermal) Prevention of loss of water Thermoregulation Sensation (touch, heat, pressure, pain) Secretion of sebum, composed of protective lipids Vitamin D production The breast is a highly modified area of skin with…

Introduction The female reproductive system: Produces haploid female gametes (ova) Receives haploid male gametes (spermatozoa) before fertilization Provides a suitable environment for fertilization of ova by spermatozoa Provides a suitable physical and hormonal environment for implantation of the embryo Accommodates and nourishes the embryo and fetus during pregnancy Expels the mature fetus at the end of pregnancy The structure of the human female reproductive system changes…

Introduction The male reproductive system is responsible for: Production, nourishment and temporary storage of the haploid male gametes (spermatozoa) Intromission of a suspension of spermatozoa (semen) into the female genital system Production of male sex hormones (androgens) Whereas the first two functions are important only during the years of sexual maturity, hormone production is required throughout life, even in utero. The male genital system ( Fig.…

Introduction The main function of the urinary system is the production, storage and voiding of urine. Urine production and the control of its composition are the responsibility of the kidneys. The pelvicalyceal systems and ureters transfer urine from the kidneys to the bladder, and the urethra is the channel through which stored urine is voided from the bladder. The pelvicalyceal systems, ureters, bladder and urethra have…

Introduction Cell communication is vital for any multicellular organism to function efficiently. At a local level, cells communicate via cell surface molecules and gap junctions, whereas remote communication is mediated by the secretion of chemical messengers, which activate cells by interacting with specific receptors. Such secretion may be one of four main types: autocrine, paracrine, endocrine or synaptic ( Fig. 14.1 ). Autocrine secretion occurs when…

Introduction The musculoskeletal system, which provides mechanical support and permits movement, is composed of skeletal muscle, tendons, bones, joints and ligaments. Skeletal muscles act as contractile levers and are connected to bone by tendons. Bones act as rigid levers, articulating with other bones through joints, which are kept in relationship by ligaments. A special characteristic of muscle, tendons and joints is the possession of a rich…

Introduction The liver acts as a vast biosynthetic chemical factory, synthesizing large complex molecules from substances brought to it in the blood, particularly substances recently absorbed by the intestine and transported by a portal blood system. The liver has a wide range of functions, which accounts for its complex structure. All of the biochemical functions of the liver are carried out by the epithelial parenchymal cells…

Introduction The alimentary tract is best considered as a muscular tube lined internally by an epithelium that varies in structure according to specialized functions required at particular sites along its length; with a few local variations, the structure of the musculature is similar throughout. The function of the alimentary tract is to take in raw food material and to fragment it into small portions. These are…

Introduction The respiratory system transfers oxygen from the air into the blood and carbon dioxide from the blood into the air. Blood oxygen is used for cellular respiratory processes that generate carbon dioxide as a by-product. The gaseous exchange occurs in the distal part of the respiratory tract, where air-containing cavities (alveolar sacs) are in intimate contact with thin-walled blood vessels. The proximal part of the…

Introduction The main transport systems are the circulatory systems, in which substances are dissolved or suspended in liquid and carried from one part of the body to another in a series of tubes (vessels). There are two main circulatory systems: the blood circulatory system and the lymphatic system. The blood circulatory system is the main method of transporting oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and metabolic breakdown products,…

Introduction The immune system is part of an array of defence systems used to combat disease. The body must constantly protect itself from invasion by a variety of pathogens, which may gain entry via the skin, gut, respiratory tract and other routes. This protection is provided by a range of cells which together form the immune system. The main cell types involved are white blood cells,…