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Metaplasia

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Electron microscopy in the twenty-first century

Introduction Biological electron microscopy (EM) is pivotal in life science research. A measure of its ubiquity is the diversity of its capacity, e.g. three-dimensional structural information about proteins and viruses at Å resolution; three-dimensional reconstructions of cellular organelles and tissues (from a few tens of nanometres to hundreds of micrometres); and two-dimensional and topographic information and elemental microanalysis at subcellular resolution. The capacity of EM can…

Skin and its appendages

In this chapter, the types and functions of skin in different parts of the body are described first, followed by the microstructure of the epidermis and dermis, and the appendages of skin, including the pilosebaceous units, sweat glands and nails. The development of skin, natural skin lines and age-related changes, and clinical aspects of skin, e.g. grafts, surgical skin flaps and wound healing, are also described.…

Smooth muscle and the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems

The cardiovascular system carries blood from the heart to all parts of the body through a series of tubes, all but the smallest of which are muscular. The muscle in these tubes is of two types: smooth muscle is characteristic of the walls of blood vessels, whereas cardiac muscle provides the walls of the heart chambers with their powerful contractile pumping action. The general characteristics and…

Functional anatomy of the musculoskeletal system

The musculoskeletal system comprises the specialized connective tissues of the articulated bony skeleton (including bone, cartilage and tendon) and the skeletal muscles that act across the articulations. Connective tissues are characterized by a sparse population of cells within an abundant and physically durable extracellular matrix. All of the specialized cells of the musculoskeletal system are related members of the connective tissue family and are derived from…

Blood, lymphoid tissues and haemopoiesis

Blood is an opaque fluid with a viscosity greater than that of water (mean relative viscosity 4.75 at 18 °C), and a specific gravity of 1.06 at 15 °C. It is bright red when oxygenated, as in the systemic arteries, and dark red to purple when deoxygenated, in systemic veins. Blood is a mixture of a clear liquid, plasma, and cellular elements, and consequently the hydrodynamic…

Nervous system

The nervous system has two major divisions, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS consists of the brain, spinal cord, optic nerve and retina, and contains the majority of neuronal cell bodies. The PNS includes all nervous tissue outside the CNS and consists of the cranial and spinal nerves, the peripheral autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the special senses (taste,…

Integrating cells into tissues

Cells evolved as single, free-living organisms, but natural selection favoured more complex communities of cells, multicellular organisms, where groups of cells specialize during development to carry out specific functions for the body as a whole. This allowed the emergence of larger organisms with greater control over their internal environment and the evolution of highly specialized organic structures such as the brain. The human body contains more…

Basic structure and function of cells

Cell Structure General characteristics of cells The shapes of mammalian cells vary widely depending on their interactions with each other, their extracellular environment and internal structures. Their surfaces are often highly folded when absorptive or transport functions take place across their boundaries. Cell size is limited by rates of diffusion, either that of material entering or leaving cells, or that of diffusion within them. Movement of…

Systemic review

Skeleton A from the front B from behind The left forearm is in the position of supination, the right in pronation in A. 1 Skull 2 Mandible 3 Hyoid bone 4 Cervical vertebrae 5 Clavicle 6 Sternum 7 Costal arch cartilages 8 Ribs 9 Scapula 10 Humerus 11 Radius 12 Ulna 13 Carpal bones 14 Metacarpal bones 15 Phalanges of thumb and fingers 16 Thoracic vertebrae…

Lymphatics

Open full size image Open full size image Open full size image Open full size image Lymphatic system Phase 1 images are taken on day one and best show the vessels whereas phase 2 are taken at about 48 hours and best image the lymph nodes. A Thymus lying in the superior and anterior mediastinum as seen through a split-sternal approach The palatine tonsils (commonly referred…

Lower limb

Open full size image Open full size image Open full size image Open full size image Lower limb A surface anatomy, from the front B dissection, from the front C dissection, from behind D dissection, from the lateral side E skeleton, from the lateral side 1 Adductors 2 Biceps femoris 3 Calcaneus 4 Femur 5 Fibula 6 Gastrocnemius 7 Gluteus maximus 8 Hamstrings 9 Hip bone…

Abdomen and pelvis

Open full size image Open full size image Open full size image Open full size image A Anterior abdominal wall surface markings, above the umbilicus The solid white line indicates the costal margin. The blue line indicates the transpyloric plane. The C-shaped duodenum is outlined in pink, the kidneys and liver in brown and the pancreas in pale green. 1 Aortic opening in diaphragm 2 Apex…

Thorax

Open full size image Open full size image Open full size image Open full size image Thorax A surface anatomy, from the front B axial skeleton, from behind C axial skeleton, from the front (vertebral column and thoracic cage) 1 Acromion 2 Clavicle 3 Costal margin 4 Deltopectoral groove 5 Manubrium 6 Rib 7 Second rib 8 Sternal body 9 Suprasternal jugular notch 10 Thoracic vertebra,…

Upper limb

Open full size image Open full size image Open full size image Open full size image Upper limb A surface anatomy B muscles C bones 1 Arm 2 Deltoid 3 Elbow joint 4 Forearm 5 Hand 6 Interphalangeal joint 7 Scapula 8 Shoulder joint 9 Wrist joint Left scapula A dorsal surface B costal surface 1 Acromial angle 2 Acromion 3 Coracoid process 4 Inferior angle…

Vertebral column and spinal cord

Open full size image Open full size image Open full size image Open full size image Back and vertebral column A surface anatomy B axial skeleton C vertebral column 1 Atlas vertebra 2 Axis vertebra 3 Cervical vertebrae, lordosis 4 Coccyx 5 Lumbar vertebrae, lordosis 6 Sacrum 7 Thoracic vertebrae, kyphosis Back and shoulder A surface anatomy B muscles 1 Coccyx 2 Deltoid 3 External oblique…

Head, neck and brain

Open full size image Open full size image Open full size image Open full size image Skull from the front 1 Anterior nasal spine 2 Body of mandible 3 Frontal bone 4 Frontal notch 5 Frontal process of maxilla 6 Glabella 7 Greater wing of sphenoid bone 8 Infra-orbital foramen 9 Infra-orbital margin 10 Inferior nasal concha 11 Inferior orbital fissure 12 Lacrimal bone 13 Lesser…

Resources for the Hematologist: Interpretive Comments and Selected Reference Values for Neonatal, Pediatric, and Adult Populations

Appendix Contents Red Blood Cell Testing Estimated Blood Volumes (Plasma Volume and Red Blood Cell Mass) Complete Blood Count (Red Blood Cell) Parameters Red Blood Cell Distribution Width Reticulocyte Count (Absolute and Percentage) Immature Reticulocyte Fraction Reticulocyte Hemoglobin Equivalent Haptoglobin Plasma Hemoglobin Hemoglobin F and Hemoglobin A2 Sickle Cell Screen (Hemoglobin S Solubility Test) Ferritin Total Iron-Binding Capacity, Transferrin Saturation Iron Erythropoietin Folate (RBC or Serum/Plasma)…