Key points Animal models are critical for understanding disease mechanisms and developing new therapies. Species differences in intervertebral disc size, tissue composition, and cellular content associate with distinct biomechanical and biological behaviors. Some features of human disc degeneration are mimicked…
Key points Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration involves endplate-driven and annulus-driven phenotypes that accumulate and interact with progressive degeneration and eventual collapse of the IVD. IVD injuries result in organ-level changes that affect cellular level responses and organ level biomechanical behaviors,…
Key points The spine protects the spinal cord and provides mechanical strength to the trunk while allowing for a certain amount of flexibility. The intervertebral disc has a design and structure highly optimized to fulfill its mechanical requirements, that is,…
Key points Intimate relationships between osseous, nervous, vascular, and soft tissue structures of the spine are critical to normal function. A thorough understanding of these relationships is essential to the comprehension of spinal pathology and its surgical management as well…
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Introduction Artificial intelligence (AI) is the field of computer science that involves the simulation of intelligent behavior by computers. It is used to predict, automate, augment, and optimize tasks historically done by humans. To provide an overall view of some…
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P R S T U V W Y A Absent Bow-Tie Sign Accordion Sign Air Bronchogram Air Crescent Sign Angel-Wing (Bat-Wing) Pattern Angel-Wing Sign (Spinnaker…
It is difficult to imagine the level of excitement that was felt around the world soon after the discovery of x-rays by Wilhelm Roentgen in 1895. For the first time ever, we could see inside the human body while the…
General Terminology Like politics, all terminology is local. Follow the terminology conventions used in your hospital or, alternatively, the person rendering your course grade, even if those conventions are different from what is described here. You’re Reading a Preview Become…
Ionizing Radiation in Radiology Utilizing the modalities of conventional radiography, computed tomography (CT), and fluoroscopy, diagnostic images are produced using ionizing radiation. It is well known that radiation can also have harmful effects if used in excess or certain situations.…