Key points Animal models are critical for understanding disease mechanisms and developing new therapies. Species differences in intervertebral disc size, tissue composition, and cellular content associate with distinct biomechanical and biological behaviors. Some features of human disc degeneration are mimicked…
Key points Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration involves endplate-driven and annulus-driven phenotypes that accumulate and interact with progressive degeneration and eventual collapse of the IVD. IVD injuries result in organ-level changes that affect cellular level responses and organ level biomechanical behaviors,…
Key points The spine protects the spinal cord and provides mechanical strength to the trunk while allowing for a certain amount of flexibility. The intervertebral disc has a design and structure highly optimized to fulfill its mechanical requirements, that is,…
Key points Intimate relationships between osseous, nervous, vascular, and soft tissue structures of the spine are critical to normal function. A thorough understanding of these relationships is essential to the comprehension of spinal pathology and its surgical management as well…
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Overview Chronic liver disease (CLD) is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, and in Chapter 1 the extent of the problem is fully discussed. There are now effective treatments for liver disease caused by hepatitis B or hepatitis…
Introduction Any discussion of chronic liver disease (CLD) would be remiss if a detailed description of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) were not included. In 2018 primary liver cancer was projected to be the sixth most diagnosed and fourth most common cause…
Introduction Acoustic radiation force impulse (ARFI) is a continually developing technology that provides biomechanical information concerning tissue elasticity (stiffness) by emitting a push pulse, which generates laterally propagating shear waves (SWs). In addition to elasticity, viscosity provides biomechanical information concerning…
Introduction Worldwide, obesity has nearly tripled since 1975. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that, as of 2016, more than 1.9 billion adults 18 years or older were overweight, and, of these, over 650 million were obese. The WHO report…
Introduction Guidelines for the use of elastography in diffuse liver disease have been released by societies or federations of societies. The first set of guidelines was released by European Federation of Societies for Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology (EFSUMB) in…