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Key points The process of intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration consists of gradual structural and biochemical changes that may lead to pain and disability. IVD degeneration is multifaceted, mediated by biomechanical alterations, nutritional compromise, genetics, and environmental factors among others Various…
Key points Various imaging modalities exist to assess the intervertebral disc. Classification grading schemes have been proposed to assess the morphological and structural changes of the disc. Novel or nontraditional imaging platforms have been developed to assess early disc changes,…
Key points Animal models are critical for understanding disease mechanisms and developing new therapies. Species differences in intervertebral disc size, tissue composition, and cellular content associate with distinct biomechanical and biological behaviors. Some features of human disc degeneration are mimicked…
Key points Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration involves endplate-driven and annulus-driven phenotypes that accumulate and interact with progressive degeneration and eventual collapse of the IVD. IVD injuries result in organ-level changes that affect cellular level responses and organ level biomechanical behaviors,…
Key points The spine protects the spinal cord and provides mechanical strength to the trunk while allowing for a certain amount of flexibility. The intervertebral disc has a design and structure highly optimized to fulfill its mechanical requirements, that is,…
Key points Intimate relationships between osseous, nervous, vascular, and soft tissue structures of the spine are critical to normal function. A thorough understanding of these relationships is essential to the comprehension of spinal pathology and its surgical management as well…
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5.1.1 Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 5.1.1.1 Introduction In the large majority of applications MRI focuses on detecting proton signal, in particular the signal from water protons. It therefore provides information about anatomical structure and the biophysical state of tissue water. Magnetic…
4.3.1 Rationale Spinal cord blood vessels are millimeter- to submillimeter-sized blood vessels that are hard to visualize in the human body. In vivo imaging of spinal cord arteries and veins was until recently only possible using invasive catheter-based angiography, which…
4.2.1 What is Physiological Noise? Physiological noise can be defined as any signal change occurring in an image that is due to the subject and that is of no interest. Equally, movement of the subject (e.g., bulk movement of the cord)…