18.1 Introduction Posterior root-muscle (PRM) reflexes are short-latency spinal reflexes evoked by the electrical stimulation of lumbar and upper sacral posterior rootles/roots and recorded from various lower limb muscles . Posterior root fibers can be stimulated in humans by electrodes…
17.1 Introduction The closing of eyelids in response to various stimuli is a blink reflex (BR). In humans and primates this closing of eyelids is bilateral while in other animals, especially those with lateralized position of the eyes, it is…
16.1 Introduction A reflex is a relatively simple motor behavior reflexively driven by afferent inputs of diverse modalities. The term “reflexively” refers to the fact that this motor response is not subjected to conscious voluntary control, although it may be…
15.1 Introduction Brainstem reflexes are relatively simple motor responses organized by the brainstem and designed to enable the body to adjust rapidly to sudden changes in the environment. The laryngeal adductor reflex (LAR) is possibly one of the most crucial…
14.1 Introduction Almost 60 years ago, the first description of pure motor hemiplegia of supraspinal origin was published by Fisher and Curry . Their definition was as follows: “For present purposes a pure motor hemiplegia is defined as a paralysis…
13.1 Introduction Through the ages, various treatments for spinal deformity have evolved. In 1962, Harrington ushered in the revolutionary utilization of metallic, internal fixation devices for spinal deformity when he reported on the utilization of a distraction rod construct for…
12.1 Introduction Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring of the functional integrity of spinal cord (SC) pathways is crucial to prevent, limit, or document the moment of surgically induced injury . The available methods can be divided into monitoring and mapping techniques .…
11.1 Introduction Advanced technology of both surgery and diagnostic imaging opened the door to the brain stem which was once regarded as “no man’s land” . Brain stem mapping (BSM) is now considered a tool in the neurophysiological armamentarium available…
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9.1 Introduction In modern neuro-oncology the two main goals are maximizing the extent of tumor resection to improve survival and avoiding postoperative deficits to improve the quality of life . Therefore tumor resection should be based on functional boundaries rather…