1 Introduction The bowl-shaped pelvic cavity is continuous superiorly with the abdomen and bounded inferiorly by the perineum, the region between the proximal thighs. The bones of the pelvic girdle demarcate the following two regions: Greater or false pelvis: the…
1 Introduction The abdomen is the region between the thorax superiorly and the pelvis inferiorly. The abdomen is composed of the following: Layers of skeletal muscle that line the abdominal walls and assist in respiration and, by increasing intraabdominal pressure,…
1 Introduction The thorax lies between the neck and abdomen, encasing the great vessels, heart, and lungs, and provides a conduit for structures passing between the head and neck superiorly and the abdomen, pelvis, and lower limbs inferiorly. Functionally, the…
1 Introduction The back forms the axis (central line) of the human body and consists of the vertebral column, spinal cord, supporting muscles, and associated tissues (skin, connective tissues, vasculature, and nerves). A hallmark of human anatomy is the concept…
1 Terminology Anatomical Position The study of anatomy requires a clinical vocabulary that defines position, movements, relationships, and planes of reference, as well as the systems of the human body. The study of anatomy can be by body region or…
OSMOTIC DIURETICS ACTIONS AND MECHANISM In the nephron, water reabsorption is a passive phenomenon that relies on the transcellular osmotic gradients established during the reabsorption of solutes, especially sodium. Osmotic diuretics alter these gradients to produce diuresis. After intravenous administration,…
BENIGN RENAL TUMORS There are several different kinds of benign renal tumors, which may originate from a wide range of cell types. Solid renal tumors, however, are generally malignant, with the probability of malignancy strongly correlating with tumor size. For…
VOIDING DYSFUNCTION Urinary incontinence affects an estimated 13 million adults in the United States, 85% of whom are women. The problem is especially common among nursing home residents, affecting 50%, and older women, affecting 15% to 30% of women over…
RENAL INJURIES The kidney is injured in up to 5% to 10% of all severe trauma cases. At most urban trauma centers, approximately 80% to 90% of kidney injuries are blunt, while the remainder are penetrating. Children are more likely…
OBSTRUCTIVE UROPATHY Obstructive uropathy encompasses the numerous sequelae that may be observed when there is an anatomic or functional blockage of the natural flow of urine. Obstructions may occur at any level in the urinary tract, and the clinical signs…