Functional Anatomy of the Breast The human female breast is composed of a tubuloalveolar parenchyma embedded in a connective and adipose tissue stroma. The glandular component of the mature breast is composed of radially organized lobes, each connected to the…
Introduction Lactation is the defining characteristic of “mammal” and has enabled the wide distribution of more than the 4000 species. The evolution of a large brain that consumes approximately 23% of resting energy has given humankind a significant competitive intellectual…
Introduction Growth reflects a complex interaction of genetic, epigenetic, endocrine, and nutritional factors that regulate cell division, differentiation, and function (see Meler et al. for a recent compilation of genetic and epigenetic conditions leading to fetal growth restriction). Various phases of…
Introduction During fetal life, factors associated with maternal, placental, and fetal environments interact to ensure optimal fetal metabolism and growth. However, in 3% to 7% of pregnancies these interactions become suboptimal and growth of the fetus does not align with…
Introduction Since the early 2000s, researchers and clinicians have greatly expanded the knowledge base of drug entry kinetics as they relate to human milk. Most of the physiochemical properties that affect a drug’s transfer into milk are well known and…
Introduction Drug distribution and clearance determine the concentration of drug that will be attained at the site of drug action. Drug targets include cell surface receptors, intracellular receptors, enzymes, transcriptional mechanisms, ion channels, and molecular transport systems. These targets may…
Introduction Pharmacogenetic variants are DNA variants that influence the metabolism and elimination or the action of medications. Research in pharmacogenetics seeks to understand how these variants influence variability in medication response. For the perinatal pharmacologist, genetic variations that affect drug…
Introduction: From a Passive Filter Barrier Concept to an Active Drug Handling Organ When deconstructed to its basic structure, the placenta is an active (“drug handling”) barrier between two separated systems (maternal, fetal) with placental drug disposition driven by differences…
Introduction Pharmacokinetics describes the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of drugs. The pharmacokinetic parameters of a drug are used to characterize the drug concentrations reached within the body after a dose and the changes in those concentrations over time. Clinical…
Introduction Pharmacology is a science concerned with the interaction of substances (e.g., drugs) with cells, tissues, and organisms. The in vivo efficacy of a drug is guided by two principles of pharmacology, namely pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Pharmacokinetics deals with the processes…