The lungs are the essential organs of respiration and are responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood. The functional anatomy of the thorax and respiratory diaphragm facilitates this complex process. Acting together, the muscles of…
The chest wall surrounds the thoracic cavity. It is formed by: an osseocartilaginous frame consisting normally of 12 pairs of ribs, which articulate with the 12 thoracic vertebrae posteriorly and (except for the last two or three pairs of ribs)…
The thorax is the upper part of the trunk. It consists of an external musculoskeletal cage, the thoracic wall and an internal cavity that contains the heart, lungs, oesophagus, trachea and main bronchi, thymus, vagus and phrenic nerves, sympathetic trunks…
Skin and Soft Tissues Skin Dorsal skin versus palmar skin The dorsal skin is thin, mobile and frequently hirsute over the proximal phalanges and the ulnar aspect of the dorsum of the hand. The skin of the palm and the…
Skin and Soft Tissues Skin Cutaneous vascular supply The skin of the elbow and forearm receives its blood supply from muscle perforators, fasciocutaneous networks and direct cutaneous vessels. The skin of the anterolateral cubital fossa is supplied by muscle perforators…
The upper limb is differentiated to achieve the complex patterns of stereotactic, non-stereotactic and gestural movements (each with a distinct neurological basis) that enable hand function. The combined movements of the shoulder and elbow bring objects in the hand into…
The upper limb is, in mechanical terms, a series of powered, articulated segments which enable the hand to be positioned accurately in space so that it can sense and manipulate its surrounding environment. It is attached to the bony thorax…
The gross anatomy of the structures that lie within the vertebral canal and their extensions through the intervertebral foramina, the spinal nerve or radicular (‘root’) canals, is described in this chapter. The internal organization of the spinal cord is described…
Most clinical disorders of the back present as low back pain with or without associated lower limb pain, weakness or numbness, and so, historically, most attention has been paid to the anatomy of the lower (lumbosacral) back. In this Section,…
The outer surface of the eye is composed of parts of two spheres with different radii. The anterior segment, part of the smaller sphere, is formed by the transparent cornea and accounts for approximately 7% of the ocular surface. The…