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Pyrrolizidine alkaloids
General information
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids occur in a large number of plants, notably the genera Crotalaria (Fabaceae), Cynoglossum (Boraginaceae), Eupatorium (Asteraceae), Heliotropium (Boraginaceae), Petasites (Asteraceae), Senecio (Asteraceae), and Symphytum (Boraginaceae) ( Table 1 ) [ ].
Table 1
Pyrrolizidine alkaloids in various genera
| Genus | Pyrrolizidine alkaloids |
|---|---|
| Crotalaria albida | Croalbidine |
| Crotalaria anagyroides | Anacrotine, methylpyrrolizidine |
| Crotalaria aridicola | Various dehydropyrrolizidines |
| Crotalaria axillaris | Axillaridine, axillarine |
| Crotalaria barbata | Crobarbatine |
| Crotalaria burha | Croburhine, crotalarine |
| Crotalaria candicans | Crocandine, cropodine |
| Crotalaria crassipes | Retusamine |
| Crotalaria crispata | Crispatine, fulvine |
| Crotalaria dura | Crotaline |
| Crotalaria fulva | Fulvine |
| Crotalaria globifer | Crotaline, globiferine |
| Crotalaria goreensis | Hydroxymethylenepyrrolizidine |
| Crotalaria grahamiana | Grahamine |
| Crotalaria grantiana | Grantianine |
| Crotalaria incana | Anacrotine |
| Crotalaria intermedia | Integerrimine, usaramine |
| Crotalaria laburnifolia | Crotalaburnine, hydroxysenkirkine |
| Crotalaria madurensis | Crotafoline, madurensine |
| Crotalaria mitchelii | Retusamine |
| Crotalaria mucronata | Mucronitine, mucronitinine |
| Crotalaria nana | Crotaburnine, crotananine |
| Crotalaria novae-hollandiae | Retusamine |
| Crotalaria retusa | Retusamine |
| Crotalaria semperflorus | Crosemperine |
| Crotalaria spectabilis | Retronecanol |
| Crotalaria stricta | Crotastrictine |
| Crotalaria trifoliastrum | Various alkylpyrrolizidines |
| Crotalaria usaramoensis | Usaramine, usaramoensine |
| Crotalaria virgulata | Grantaline, grantianine |
| Crotalaria walkeri | Acetylcrotaverrine, crotaverrine |
| Cynoglossum amabile | Amabiline, echinatine |
| Cynoglossum glochidiatum | Amabiline |
| Cynoglossum lanceolatum | Cynaustine, cynaustraline |
| Cynoglossum latifolium | Latifoline |
| Cynoglossum officinale | Heliosupine |
| Cynoglossum pictum | Echinatine, heliosupine |
| Cynoglossum viridiflorum | Heliosupine, viridiflorine |
| Eupatorium cannabinum | Echinatine, supinine |
| Eupatorium maculatum | Echinatine, trachelantimidine |
| Heliotropium acutiflorum | Heliotrine |
| Heliotropium arguzoides | Trichodesmine |
| Heliotropium curassavicum | Angelylheliotridine |
| Heliotropium dasycarpum | Heliotrine |
| Heliotropium eichwaldii | Angelylheliotrine |
| Heliotropium europeum | Acetyl-lasiocarpine, helioitrine |
| Heliotropium indicum | Acetylindicine, indicine, indicinine |
| Heliotropium lasiocarpum | Heliotrine, lasiocarpine |
| Heliotropium olgae | Heliotrine, incanine, lasiocarpine |
| Heliotropium ovalifolium | Heliofoline |
| Heliotropium ramosissimum | Heliotrine |
| Heliotropium strigosum | Strigosine |
| Heliotropium supinum | Heliosupine, supinine |
| Heliotropium transoxanum | Heliotrine |
| Petasites japonicus | Fukinotoxin, petasinine, petasinoside |
| Senecio adnatus | Platyphylline |
| Senecio alpinus | Seneciphylline |
| Senecio amphibolus | Macrophylline |
| Senecio angulatus | Angulatine |
| Senecio aquaticus | Aquaticine |
| Senecio argentino | Retrorsine, senecionine |
| Senecio aureus | Floridanine, florosenine, otosenine |
| Senecio auricula | Neosenkirkine |
| Senecio borysthenicus | Seneciphylline |
| Senecio brasiliensis | Brasilinecine |
| Senecio campestris | Campestrine |
| Senecio cannabifolius | Senecicannabine |
| Senecio carthamoides | Carthamoidine |
| Senecio cineraria | Jacobine, seneciphylline |
| Senecio cissampelinum | Senampelines |
| Senecio crucifolia | Jacobine |
| Senecio doronicum | Doronine |
| Senecio erraticus | Erucifoline, floridanine |
| Senecio filaginoides | Retrorsine, ionine |
| Senecio franchetti | Franchetine, sarracine |
| Senecio fuchsii | Fuchsisenecionine |
| Senecio gillesiano | Retrorsine, senecionine |
| Senecio glabellum | Integerrimine, senecionine |
| Senecio glandulosus | Retrorsine, senecionine |
| Senecio glastifolius | Graminifoline |
| Senecio hygrophylus | Hygrophylline, platyphylline |
| Senecio ilicifolius | Pterophine, senecionine |
| Senecio illinitus | Acetylsenkirkine, senecionine |
| Senecio incanus | Seneciphylline |
| Senecio integerrimus | Integerrimine, senecionine |
| Senecio isatideus | Isatidine, retrorsine |
| Senecio jacobaea | Jacobine, jacoline, jaconine, jacozine, otosenine, renardine |
| Senecio kirkii | Acetylsenkirkine, senkirkine |
| Senecio kubensis | Seneciphylline |
| Senecio latifolius | Senecifolidine, senecifoline |
| Senecio leucostachys | Retrorsine, senecionine |
| Senecio longibolus | Integerrimine, longiboline, retronecanol, retrorsine, riddelline, senecionine, seneciphylline |
| Senecio macrophyllus | Macrophylline |
| Senecio mikanoides | Mikanoidine |
| Senecio nemorensis | Nemorensine, oxynemorensine |
| Senecio othonnae | Floridnine, onetine, otosenine |
| Senecio othonniformis | Bisline, isoline |
| Senecio palmatus | Seneciphylline |
| Senecio paucicalyculatus | Paucicaline |
| Senecio petasis | Bisline |
| Senecio phillipicus | Retrorsine, seneciphylline |
| Senecio platyphylloides | Neoplatyphylline, platyphylline, sarracine, seneciphylline |
| Senecio platyphyllus | Platyphylline, seneciphylline |
| Senecio pojarkovae | Sarracine, seneciphylline |
| Senecio procerus | Procerine |
| Senecio propinquus | Seneciphylline |
| Senecio pseudoarnica | Senecionine |
| Senecio pterophorus | Pterophine |
| Senecio ragonesi | Retrorsine, senecionine, uspallatine |
| Senecio renardi | Renardine, seneciphylline |
| Senecio retrorsus | Senkirkine |
| Senecio rhombifolius | Isatidine, retrorsine, neoplatyphylline, platyphylline sarracine, seneciphylline |
| Senecio Riddellii | Riddelline |
| Senecio rivularis | Angeloyloxyheliotrine |
| Senecio rosmarinifolius | Rosmarinine |
| Senecio ruwenzoriensis | Ruwenine, ruzorine |
| Senecio sarracenicus | Sarracine |
| Senecio scleratus | Isatidine, scleratine |
| Senecio seratophiloides | Senecivernine |
| Senecio spartioides | Seneciphylline, spartoidine |
| Senecio squalidus | Senecionine, squalidine |
| Senecio stenocephalus | Seneciphylline |
| Senecio subalpinus | Seneciphylline |
| Senecio subulatus | Retrorsine, senecionine |
| Senecio swaziensis | Swazine |
| Senecio triangularis | Triangularine |
| Senecio uspallatensis | Senecionine, uspallatine |
| Senecio vernalis | Senecivernine |
| Senecio viranvira | Anacrotine, neoplatyphylline |
| Senecio viscosus | Senecionine |
| Senecio vulgaris | Senecionine |
| Symphytum asperum | Asperumine, echinatine |
| Symphytum caucasicum | Heliosupine, echinatine |
| Symphytum officinalis | Lasiocarpine, symphytine, viridiflorine |
| Symphytum orientale | Echinatine, heliosupine |
| Symphytum tuberosum | Lasiocarpine, symphytine |
| Symphytum uplandicum | Viridflorine, anadoline, heneicisane, tricosane, acetylintermedine, acetyl-lycopsamine, uplandicine |
Some plants that contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids are used in traditional forms of herbal medicine, in places such as India, in particular in Ayurvedic medicine [ ], China [ , ], Mongolia, Nepal, and Tibet [ ], and Madagascar [ ]. Contamination of foodstuffs can result in acute and subacute food poisoning, with high morbidity and mortality, for example in Africa and central and south Asia [ ]. Animal feeds can also be affected [ ].
The German Federal Health Office has restricted the availability of botanical medicines containing unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids [ , ]. Herbal medicines that provide over 1 mg/day internally or over 100 mg/day externally are not permitted; herbal medicines that provide 0.1–1 mg/day internally or 10–100 mg/day externally may be applied for only a maximum of 6 weeks per year, and they should not be used during pregnancy or lactation.
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