Headaches are classified as primary or secondary. Primary headaches are benign, are not caused by underlying disease or structural problems, and include migraines, tension-type headaches (TTHs), and the trigeminal autonomic cephalgias (TACs). Migraines and TTHs are the most common primary headaches in children and can have less distinct features in children than they do in adults ( Table 34.1 ). While primary headaches may cause significant pain and disability, they are not intrinsically dangerous. Secondary headaches are caused by an underlying disease, such as infection, tumor, intracranial hemorrhage, or a vascular disorder, and may indicate an innocuous etiology or portend a serious illness. Most headaches in children are primary headaches or harmless secondary headaches. History and physical examination guide the diagnosis of primary headache disorders, assess the degree of headache-related disability, and reveal information that may prompt evaluation for secondary headaches. Each subsequent visit allows for assessment of the response to therapy and consideration of secondary headaches, the causes of which may confer significant morbidity and in rare cases may be life threatening.

TABLE 34.1
Differential Diagnosis of Headache
From Digre KB. Headaches and other head pain. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Goldman-Cecil Medicine . 25th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2016, Table 398-2.
Headache Type Genetics Epidemiology Characteristic Features Length Accompanying Symptoms
Migraine headache Complex genetics but usually a family history More frequent in women Unilateral, bilateral; throbbing; moderate to severe; worsens with activity Hours to days Photophobia, phonophobia, nausea and/or vomiting
Tension-type headache Usually a family history Equal frequency in men and women Tight bandlike pain; bilateral; pain may be mild to moderate; improves with activity Hours to days No nausea or vomiting; small amount of light or sound sensitivity, but not both
Cluster headache May have a family history More frequent in men Unilateral severe pain in the face Minutes to hours Ipsilateral ptosis, miosis, rhinorrhea, eyelid edema, tearing
Paroxysmal hemicrania Usually no family history More frequent in women Unilateral pain in the face Minutes Ipsilateral ptosis, miosis, rhinorrhea, eyelid edema, tearing; responds to indomethacin
Short unilateral headache with conjunctival injection, tearing No family history More frequent in men Unilateral eye pain; orbit pain Typically 4 min or less Conjunctival injection, tearing
Hemicrania continua No family history More frequent in women Unilateral continuous headache with episodic stabbing pains Continuous Ipsilateral ptosis, miosis, rhinorrhea, eyelid edema, tearing

History

The specific headache diagnosis is determined by the headache phenotype, which is defined in terms of laterality, location ( Figs. 34.1, 34.2, and 34.3 ), timing, frequency, duration, quality, severity, associated symptoms, and alleviating and aggravating factors. In most cases, a single phenotypic headache is present. If the patient has more than one type of headache, the clinician must obtain a specific history for each type. Ideally, the history should be obtained from the child, parent, and any other caregivers, including teachers. Even a young child should be given the opportunity to describe the symptoms experienced with each headache episode and may use drawings to do this.

Fig. 34.1, Common location of migraine (A) and tension (B) headaches. Of note, some tension headaches may be unilateral, while migraines may occur in the same distribution (including bilateral) as tension headaches.

Fig. 34.2, Periorbital headache.

Fig. 34.3, Cluster headache.

The laterality and location of the pain should be established (see Figs. 34.1, 34.2, and 34.3 ). If the pain is unilateral, it should be noted whether the pain is always on one side or if the side varies. The location may be restricted or more widely distributed; if the location varies from one episode to another, this should be noted as well. Unusual locations in pediatrics may include the occipital region. This location should raise index of suspicion for intracranial pathology if there are abnormal neurologic findings or the headache does not meet criteria for a primary headache disorder.

The timing, frequency, and duration of headaches should be described, as the temporal patterns of headaches are useful in creating a differential diagnosis, identifying the need for work-up, and classifying the type of headache. The temporal categories of headache include acute, acute recurrent, chronic nonprogressive, and chronic progressive ( Table 34.2 ).

TABLE 34.2
Four Temporal Patterns of Childhood Headache
From Huang Schiller J, Shellhaas RA. Headache and migraine. In: Marcdante KJ, Kliegman RM, eds. Nelson Essentials of Pediatrics . 8th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2019:686.
  • Acute: Single episode of pain without a history of such episodes. The “first and worst” headache raises concerns for aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage in adults but is commonly due to febrile illness related to upper respiratory tract infection in children. Regardless, more ominous causes of acute headache (hemorrhage, meningitis, tumor) must be considered.

  • Acute recurrent: Pattern of attacks of pain separated by symptom-free intervals. Primary headache syndromes, such as migraine or tension-type headache, usually cause this pattern. Recurrent headaches are occasionally due to specific epilepsy syndromes (benign occipital epilepsy), substance abuse, or recurrent trauma.

  • Chronic progressive: Implies a gradually increasing frequency and severity of headache. The pathologic correlate is increasing ICP. Causes of this pattern include pseudotumor cerebri, brain tumor, hydrocephalus, chronic meningitis, brain abscess, and subdural collections.

  • Chronic nonprogressive or chronic daily: Pattern of frequent or constant headache. Chronic daily headache generally is defined as >3-mo history of >15 headaches/mo, with headaches lasting >4 hr. Affected patients have normal neurologic examinations; psychologic factors and anxiety about possible underlying organic causes are common.

The severity of a headache does not necessarily correlate with the seriousness of its etiology. Pain caused by brain tumors may initially be mild, whereas the pain of TTHs may be excruciating. Pain is subjective and may be influenced by age, culture, duration, and previous encounters with medical care, leading some patients to unintentionally minimize or exaggerate their pain; as such, pain alone should not be used to narrow the differential diagnosis. An exception to this principle is the thunderclap headache , in which the onset of pain is sudden, reaches maximum severity within seconds, and is often described by patients as the worst headache they have ever had. Such headaches may indicate subarachnoid hemorrhage, arterial dissection, or venous sinus thrombosis, among other causes ( Table 34.3 ). Numerical scales, or visual scales for younger children, are helpful for quantifying pain and determining the efficacy of treatment. In older patients, descriptive phrases, such as mild, moderate, severe, and excruciating , may suffice.

TABLE 34.3
Main and Rare Causes of Thunderclap Headache
From Linn FHH. Primary thunderclap headache. In: Aminoff MJ, ed. Handbook of Clinical Neurology . Vol. 97. New York: Elsevier; 2010:473–481.
Main Causes Rare Causes
Vascular Disorders
Subarachnoid hemorrhage
Intracerebral hemorrhage
Cerebral venous thrombosis
Spontaneous intracranial hypotension
Cervical artery dissection
Pituitary apoplexy, arteritis, angiitis
Unruptured vascular malformation, aneurysm
Arterial hypertension
Cerebral segmental vasoconstriction
Nonvascular Disorders
Greater occipital neuralgia
Intermittent hydrocephalus by colloid cyst
Infections
Meningitis, encephalitis Erve virus (European Nairovirus)
Sinusitis
Primary Headache Disorders
Migraine
Primary thunderclap headache
Primary exertional headache
Primary cough headache
Cluster headache
Tension headache, new daily persistent headache

Associated symptoms such as hemiparesis, ataxia, visual loss, diplopia, scotomata, vertigo, seizure-like activity, confusion, mood or behavioral changes, autonomic symptoms, and hemisensory occurrences may suggest neurologic dysfunction or a migraine-related aura. Any history of fevers, syncope, nausea, vomiting, and appetite changes should also be ascertained. Special note should be made if the pain awakens the patient from sleep, is present upon awakening in the morning, or worsens when recumbent; these findings may indicate increased intracranial pressure. Events associated with the onset or aggravation of headaches, such as trauma, intake of particular foods, or physical exertion, may provide insight into the etiology of headaches, as well as potential triggers to avoid.

Alleviation via rest or positional changes should be noted, as should the response of the headaches to medications. A thorough medication history is essential for diagnosing analgesic overuse headaches and headaches caused by medication side effects. The use of over-the-counter medication and prescription medications, including medications that have not been prescribed for the patient, should be delineated, as well as the use of any supplements or traditional remedies. Both primary and secondary headaches may respond to medications and such a response is not diagnostic of any specific headache disorder. For example, relief of an acute headache by triptans is not diagnostic of migraine, as triptans may also be effective for other causes of headache.

In patients with recurring headaches, the history may be clarified by keeping a headache diary , which can additionally determine headache patterns, identify triggers, aid diagnosis, and assess the efficacy of therapy ( Table 34.4 ). A headache diary may also assist in determining the degree of disability caused by the headache. Disability evaluation may be augmented by school attendance and performance records. Headaches that improve with the onset of the summer school holiday may suggest that a child is struggling academically or is being bullied at school. In younger children, where detailed personal descriptions of pain may be more difficult to obtain and record in a diary, videos of the headache episodes may aid diagnosis.

TABLE 34.4
The Headache Diary for Recurring Headaches
  • Date

  • Time of onset

  • Time of resolution

  • Maximum level of pain (mild, moderate, or severe or according to a visual or numerical pain scale)

  • Triggers:

    • Sleep

    • Foods

    • Activities

    • Medications

  • Modifiers:

    • Response to position changes or Valsalva maneuver

    • Medications used (dose, response)

    • Other modifiers

  • Additional symptoms

If more than one type of headache exists, the types should be defined and labeled, and separate data should be recorded for each type.

Foods are believed to be less associated with triggering migraines than previously.

The past medical history may reveal a risk for potentially serious causes of secondary headaches that require prompt evaluation, such as sickle cell disease, thyroid disorders, parathyroid dysfunction, malignancy, hypercoagulability, hypertension, immunodeficiency, congenital heart disease, autoimmune disorders, and arteriovenous malformations. Allergic rhinitis and other atopic disorders are also associated with headaches. Infantile colic, benign paroxysmal torticollis, cyclic vomiting syndrome, and benign paroxysmal vertigo are considered episodic syndromes that may be associated with migraine and may precede the development of typical migraine symptoms later in life. In females, a menstrual history should be obtained, including details of the cycle and the timing of headaches with respect to the menstrual cycle. A history of secondary amenorrhea could suggest pituitary or other central nervous system neoplasms.

The family history should be probed for any genetic predisposition to migraines, aneurysms, other vascular malformations, early-onset strokes, or brain neoplasms. A negative family history for primary headaches should cause the clinician to be more cautious in assigning the diagnosis of a primary headache disorder. Social history should investigate for psychosocial factors that may influence or be influenced by headaches, such as school performance, the relationships between family members, recent changes in social structure, and substance abuse in the patient or the family. The provider should also screen for indications of neglect or abuse. Detailed psychologic evaluation with screening for symptoms of depression and anxiety may be indicated.

Some historical components are classic features of primary headaches, while others are concerning for secondary headaches ( Table 34.5 ). Throughout the history, the clinician should constantly assess for warning signs of serious and sometimes life-threatening causes of secondary headache. The identification of any of these red-flag symptoms should cause concern and lead promptly to further investigation.

TABLE 34.5
History-Related Red Flags for Secondary Headaches
  • Quality:

    • “Thunderclap” rapid-onset headache or the “worst headache of my life”

    • Recent worsening in severity or frequency

    • Change in quality

    • New-onset symptoms consistent with cluster headache

  • Location:

    • Unilateral without alteration of sides

    • Chronic or recurrent occipital headache

  • Timing:

    • Awakens from sleep

    • Occurs in morning or causes morning vomiting

    • Acute or chronic progressive pattern

  • Positional or activity-related variations:

    • Worsened in the recumbent position or when bending over

    • Headache experienced or worsened with cough or the Valsalva maneuver

  • Associated neurologic history:

    • Neurologic dysfunction other than typical aura

    • Altered sensorium during headache

    • Sensory deficits or changes in vision, gait, or coordination

    • Other focal neurologic deficits

    • Seizures or syncope

  • Decreased visual acuity

    • Mental status changes (e.g., confusion or disorientation)

    • Regression in fine or gross motor developmental skills

    • Decline in cognition or school performance

    • Change in mood, behavior, or personality

  • Associated general history:

    • Vomiting without nausea and morning/fasting nausea or vomiting

    • Polyuria or polydipsia

    • Preschool or younger age

    • History of head trauma

  • Neck pain

    • Medical comorbidities

    • History of ventriculoperitoneal shunt

    • Certain medications

    • Signs of systemic or localized head/neck infection

    • Negative family history of primary headache disorders

Physical Examination

Abnormalities in the examination may provide clues to the underlying etiology of secondary headaches, and red flags may identify specific diagnoses of concern ( Table 34.6 ). Vital signs assessment may reveal elevated blood pressure, which may be the cause of headache, signal increased intracranial pressure, or herald an underlying renal abnormality. Fever may be a sign of an infectious or inflammatory process. Growth parameters, including height, weight, body mass index, and head circumference, should be obtained. Poor weight gain may indicate an underlying chronic illness associated with headaches, such as celiac disease, respiratory disorders, neurofibromatosis type 1, or neglect. Obesity should alert the clinician to assess for symptoms of obstructive sleep apnea or idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH). Enlarged head circumference associated with signs of headache or other evidence of increased intracranial pressure warrants alarm.

TABLE 34.6
Physical Examination Red Flags for Secondary Headaches
  • Abnormal vital signs:

    • Hypertension

    • Growth failure

    • Increased head circumference or bulging fontanel

    • Fever

  • Meningeal signs with or without fever

  • Evidence of cranial trauma

  • Cranial bruit

  • Frontal bony tenderness

  • Macrocephaly

  • Abnormal ophthalmologic findings:

    • Papilledema

    • Abnormal ocular movements

    • Squinting

    • Pathologic pupillary response

    • Visual field defects

  • Abnormal neurologic findings:

    • Impaired mental status

    • Cranial nerve palsy

    • Ataxia

    • Abnormal gait

    • Abnormal coordination

    • Abnormal reflexes

    • Asymmetric motor or sensory examination

    • Hemiparesis

    • Developmental regression

  • Precocious, delayed, or arrested puberty

  • Skin findings:

    • Café-au-lait or ash leaf macules

    • Petechiae or purpura

    • Facial hemangioma

    • Malar rash

The general examination starts with assessment of mental status and overall level of distress. The head and neck examination should assess specifically for nasal congestion, sinus tenderness, and signs of allergic rhinitis, such as boggy nasal turbinates. Frontal bone tenderness could be an early sign of Pott puffy tumor, a complication of frontal sinusitis. Tenderness over the mandibular condyle in children with dental malocclusion, or jaw crepitus in patients with arthritis, may indicate temporomandibular joint dysfunction as a cause of headache. Thorough lymphatic, respiratory, cardiac, and abdominal examinations should also be completed. Genitourinary examination should include pubertal stage, as headaches may be associated with endocrine disorders. Skin should be evaluated for petechiae, atopic or vasculitis findings, and lesions associated with neurocutaneous syndromes such as neurofibromatosis or tuberous sclerosis. Signs of trauma should be noted. Neurologic examination should be detailed and include assessments of mental status, cranial nerves, auditory function, sensation, motor strength, reflexes, gait, coordination, and speech. Whenever possible, a thorough ophthalmologic examination should be undertaken, including visual acuity testing and a funduscopic evaluation for papilledema ( Fig. 34.4 ). In a young child, much of the neurologic examination is completed through observation or engaging the child in play to elicit findings. A complete ophthalmologic evaluation may be limited by lack of cooperation or comprehension. If the clinician is unable to complete or interpret the neurologic and ophthalmologic assessments, the support of a neurologist and an ophthalmologist may be required. If the results of examination suggest a structural brain lesion or increased intracranial pressure, neuroimaging is warranted ( Table 34.7 ). However, many causes of headache, including some serious diseases early in their course, do not present with abnormal findings on physical examination or have fluctuating abnormal findings ( Table 34.8 ). A single normal physical examination does not exclude pathology; thus, periodic reassessments are essential if headache persists.

Fig. 34.4, Stages of papilledema (Frisen scale). A, Stage 0: normal optic disc. B, Stage 1: very early papilledema with obscuration of the nasal border of the disc only, without elevation of the disc borders. C, Stage 2: early papilledema showing obscuration of all borders, elevation of the nasal border, and a complete peripapillary halo. D, Stage 3: moderate papilledema with elevation of all borders, increased diameter of the optic nerve head, obscuration of vessels at the disc margin, and a peripapillary halo with finger-like extensions. E, Stage 4: marked papilledema characterized by elevation of the entire nerve head and total obscuration of a segment of a major blood vessel on the disc. F, Stage 5: severe papilledema with obscuration of all vessels and obliteration of the optic cup. Note also the nerve fiber layer hemorrhages and macular exudate.

TABLE 34.7
Headache Disorders Associated with Neurologic Signs
Headache Pain Profile Neurologic Sign
Complicated migraine AR Hemiparesis, aphasia, paresthesia, hemianopia
Migraine with brainstem aura AR Dysarthria, vertigo, tinnitus, hypoacusis, diplopia, ataxia, decreased level of consciousness
Acute confusional migraine AR Alteration in migraine sensorium, stupor, agitation, fugue state
Vasculitis CP, AR Seizure, changes in sensorium
Brain neoplasm or mass CP Papilledema, focal deficit
Hydrocephalus CP, AR Papilledema, bilateral sixth nerve palsies, increased motor tone, impaired upward gaze and Parinaud syndrome
Idiopathic intracranial hypertension CP Papilledema, constricted visual fields, enlarged blind spot
Subarachnoid hemorrhage, ruptured aneurysm A Changes in sensorium, focal neurologic signs, meningismus
Subdural or epidural hemorrhage CP Focal neurologic signs, papilledema, changes in sensorium
Sagittal sinus thrombosis A Papilledema, focal neurologic deficits, changes in sensorium, seizures
Meningitis, encephalitis A Focal neurologic deficits, changes in sensorium, seizures
Optic neuritis A Papillitis, decreased visual acuity, afferent pupillary defect
A, acute; AR, acute recurrent; CP, chronic progressive.

TABLE 34.8
Headache Disorders with No Neurologic Signs
Headache Disorder Pain Profile
Tension-type headache CN, AR
Migraine without aura AR, CN
Cluster headache AR
Hypertension, uncomplicated AR, CN
Fever A
Anoxia A
Medication overuse CN
Caffeine withdrawal A, AR
Early hydrocephalus or brain mass CP
Cough headache, uncomplicated AR
Meningitis, uncomplicated A
Sinusitis, dental or pharyngeal abscess AR
Temporomandibular joint syndrome CN
Postconcussive syndrome CN
Conversion disorder CN
A, acute; AR, acute recurrent; CN, chronic nonprogressive; CP, chronic progressive.

Neuroimaging

Most children do not require neuroimaging for headaches, and it is rarely indicated in children with recurrent headaches and a normal neurologic and ophthalmologic exam. Neuroimaging should be considered when the headache history or symptomatic progression is incompatible with a primary headache disorder or if there is no family history of primary headache disorder. Furthermore, neuroimaging in the assessment of headaches in children is indicated when the following features are present: abnormal neurologic exam or historical findings; new onset of afebrile seizures or alteration in seizure type or frequency; new severe headache; change in frequency or severity of headaches; headache consistent with increased intracranial pressure; association of headache with cough or bending over; concerning past medical history components, including trauma or presence of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt; and age younger than 6 years ( Table 34.9 ). In specific cases, neuroimaging may be considered when there is history of a brain tumor in the family, fear by the patient or the parents of underlying pathology, or inability to obtain an accurate physical examination due to lack of patient cooperation.

TABLE 34.9
Reasons to Obtain Neuroimaging in a Child with Headache
  • Abnormal neurologic findings on examination including papilledema

  • History of abnormal or focal neurologic symptoms

  • New onset of afebrile seizures or alteration in seizure type or frequency

  • Recent onset of severe headache

  • New headache or change in pattern/severity of previously stable headache

  • Symptoms concerning for increased intracranial pressure such as headache:

    • Occurring in the morning

    • Worse in recumbent position

    • Waking the child from sleep

    • Associated with morning vomiting

  • Cough headache or headache when bending over

  • Atypical auras with presumed migraine headache

  • Headache consistent with trigeminal autonomic cephalgia

  • Recent or remote trauma

  • Medical comorbidities such as ventriculoperitoneal shunt

  • Young age (less than 6 yr) or inability to describe headache

  • Incompatibility of headache with primary headache disorder

  • Lack of family history of primary headache disorder

MRI and CT are the neuroimaging modalities to consider ( Table 34.10 ). CT remains the most sensitive and rapid method for detecting acute intracranial bleeding and is preferred in emergency situations or when MRI is contraindicated or unavailable. MRI is otherwise the preferred imaging modality, offering superior visualization of soft tissue contrast and gray-to-white matter differentiation without exposing the patient to the ionizing radiation associated with CT scanning. While gadolinium contrast for MRI is considered safe, it is not usually necessary. An MRI contrast study should be considered when there is concern for infection or if the noncontrast study is abnormal. MRI may involve the need for sedation, particularly in younger children. Normal neuroimaging and a single normal neurologic examination should not give complete reassurance. Follow-up assessment of ongoing symptoms or for changes in the physical examination remains necessary.

TABLE 34.10
Neuroimaging Modalities
Advantages of MRI
  • Most vascular malformations are detected

  • Accurate detection of tumors in temporal lobes and posterior fossa, and small tumors that obstruct CSF flow (e.g., quadrigeminal plate and third ventricular)

  • Paranasal sinuses usually included in the examination without special request

  • More sensitive for detecting transependymal CSF in cases of borderline hydrocephalus

  • Diagnostic for Chiari malformations

  • Magnetic resonance angiography can detect many aneurysms

  • Magnetic resonance venography can detect cortical vein and dural sinus thrombosis

Advantages of CT
  • Can rapidly diagnose intracranial bleed

  • Shorter imaging time, important in evaluating critically ill patients

  • May be used in patients with pacemakers, metal implants (surgical clips), and cosmetic tattoos (MRI may turn off pacemakers and dislodge the clips; tattoos distort the image)

  • Less expensive and easier access than MRI

CSF, cerebrospinal fluid.

Laboratory Investigations

Routine blood work is not indicated when history suggests a primary headache disorder and physical and neurologic examinations are normal. Findings in the history, physical examination, or neuroimaging that dictate directed laboratory evaluation are listed in Table 34.11 .

TABLE 34.11
Potentially Useful Tests and Studies in Children with Headaches
Laboratory Test Possible Cause of Headache
CBC Infection (elevated white blood cell count); bleeding diathesis (thrombocytopenia); anemia
CSF examination with opening pressure Infection, vasculitis, pseudotumor cerebri, subarachnoid hemorrhage after CT is normal
Toxicology assays Substance abuse, possible toxin exposure, carbon monoxide
Hypercoagulation panel Unexplained venous sinus thrombosis
ESR, ANA, ANCA Vasculitis
Genetic tests Familial hemiplegic migraine, MELAS, CADASIL, CARASIL
EEG Seizure disorder
Electrolytes, ECG, UA Hypertension, renal disease
VP shunt radiographic series Malfunctioning VP shunt
Blood glucose Hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia
Serum calcium Hyperparathyroidism
ANA, antinuclear antibody; ANCA, antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies; CADASIL, cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy; CARASIL, cerebral autosomal recessive arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy; CSF, cerebrospinal fluid; MELAS, mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis, and strokelike episodes; VP, ventriculoperitoneal.

Classification of Headaches

Headaches are classified broadly as primary or secondary. The acuity or chronicity of the headache helps to guide the development of the differential diagnosis ( Fig. 34.5 ).

Fig. 34.5, A–B, Decision-making algorithm in the assessment of headache. The temporal pattern of the headache must be clarified. Each pattern (acute, acute recurrent, chronic progressive, chronic nonprogressive) has its own differential diagnosis. ∗ Delay LP if signs of increased intracranial pressure but treat and image first. CNS, central nervous system; CSF, cerebrospinal fluid; ENT, ear, nose, and throat; LP; lumbar puncture; s/p, status post; TAC, trigeminal autonomic cephalgia.

Primary Headaches

There are three categories of primary headaches: TTH, migraine headache, and the TACs. TTH and migraine are the most common headache types in children and adolescents.

Tension-Type Headaches

TTHs are common in pediatrics with a broad prevalence range reported. These headaches have a typical pattern. Patients awaken feeling well, with pain beginning gradually and escalating throughout the day. Pain is constant, squeezing, nonpulsatile, and located in a band extending from the front of the head, across the temples, and toward the occiput or neck. Photophobia and phonophobia may accompany these headaches but are not a constant feature; patients with TTH typically do not experience both photophobia and phonophobia in the context of a single episode. Unlike migraine headaches, routine physical activity does not tend to influence the severity of the headache. In patients with long-standing pain, the headaches may assume characteristics of migraines; indeed, TTHs often accompany other headache disorders.

TTHs are classified by the International Classification of Headache Disorders-3 (ICHD-3) as either episodic or chronic. Both episodic and chronic TTHs are further classified as having associated pericranial tenderness or as lacking such tenderness. This tenderness is typically present between headaches and increases during episodes. Episodic tension-type headache (acute recurrent) is categorized as either infrequent or frequent. Infrequent episodic TTH is defined as 10 or more episodes total, occurring less than once per month on average. Frequent episodic TTH is defined as 10 or more episodes total, occurring on 1–14 days per month on average for over 3 months. Individual episodes of either may last from 30 minutes to as long as a week and have at least two of the following features: (1) bilateral location, (2) pressing or tightening (nonpulsating) quality, (3) mild or moderate intensity, and (4) not aggravated by routine physical activity such as walking or climbing stairs. Nausea or vomiting must be absent; if present, migraine should be considered. Either photophobia or phonophobia may be present; if both are present simultaneously, migraine should be considered. Chronic tension-type headaches are defined as headaches occurring at least 15 days a month for over 3 months, with features otherwise similar to episodic TTHs.

Psychosocial history may uncover the cause of the headache. Adjustment disorders and depression may be either the underlying causes or reactions to chronic pain. Sleep disturbances, school absences, and chronic analgesic use are common. In some highly motivated and successful children, the headaches may be a reaction to the stress associated with achievement. In this instance, school attendance is usually perfect, and the patient continues to achieve in all realms. However, some patients with chronic TTH may lack a contributory psychosocial history, and the severe subtypes of TTH are now thought to have a neurobiologic foundation.

Patients with TTHs have normal neurologic and physical findings, except for possible tenderness along the affected muscles. These muscles often feel tight, and palpation may trigger the pain. Laboratory tests are not required in the evaluation of TTHs.

Migraine Headaches

The diagnosis of migraine headache is typically based on the historical description of episodes. Migraine and migraine variants occur in early childhood but with an unknown prevalence, as diagnostic criteria for migraine are often insufficient in young children and infants ( Table 34.12 ). Several features distinguish migraine in children from adult migraine. In children, the headaches are shorter, ranging from 2 to 72 hours, and pain tends to be frontotemporal rather than unilateral. Vomiting and abdominal pain are more common in children than in adults, and while photophobia and phonophobia may be present in children, they may need to be deduced by behavior changes rather than by child report. Thus, 5- to 10-year-old children may present with bilateral frontal headaches and associated abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, photophobia, phonophobia, and a desire to sleep. Unilateral temporal headache location develops in late adolescence, with onset of aura typically in middle school. A family history of migraines is common, with reports of up to 90% of pediatric patients having a first- or second-degree relative with recurrent headaches.

TABLE 34.12
Migraine Variants
  • Migraine with or without aura

  • Acephalic migraine (aura without headache)

  • Familial ( CACNA1A, ATP1A, SCN1A ) or sporadic hemiplegic migraine

  • Basilar migraine (ataxia, deafness, tinnitus, vertigo, syncope)

  • Acute confusional migraine

  • Vestibular migraine

  • Paroxysmal torticollis (infants)

  • Benign paroxysmal vertigo (infants)

  • Transient global amnesia

  • Abdominal migraine

  • Retinal (monocular vision loss)

  • Migralepsy (migraine triggered by seizures)

  • Cluster migraine

  • Icepick headache

  • Migraine strokes

Episodic syndrome that may be associated with migraine.

The prevalence of migraine headaches increases with age throughout childhood and is higher in females following the onset of puberty. While the diagnosis of migraine is typically made later in childhood, a careful retrospective history of infancy and early childhood events may reveal early episodic symptoms consistent with migraine, including pallor, vomiting, fussiness, and sleepiness occurring outside the context of concurrent illnesses. Furthermore, benign paroxysmal torticollis, cyclic vomiting syndrome, and benign paroxysmal vertigo are episodic syndromes that may be associated with the diagnosis of migraines later in life.

Certain exposures trigger migraine attacks in susceptible patients. Precipitants include hunger, dehydration, heat or weather changes, exertion, sleep deprivation or irregularity, substance exposures or withdrawal, and psychologic triggers. Food triggers are now thought to be less common than previously believed. In postmenarchal females, migraines may cluster around particular phases of the menstrual cycle.

Migraines are categorized based on the presence or absence of an associated aura. Migraine without aura is the most common migraine phenotype in pediatric patients.

Migraine without aura

Criteria assist in the diagnosis of migraine without aura and are based on the number and duration of episodes, as well as symptoms and associated findings ( Table 34.13 ). Children may have shorter-duration headaches. The pain onset is typically gradual and is dull and constant. At times, though, the pain of an episode may be sudden and severe, prompting concern for a thunderclap headache. More typically, pain increases in severity over the course of an individual episode and becomes throbbing. As the headache proceeds, the pain may generalize to the entire cranium. Intense nausea often accompanies migraines, with occasional vomiting. Skin pallor is a common finding. Nasal congestion and tearing may be present. Because most patients are sensitive to motion, light, and noise during a migraine attack, they search for a dark and quiet place to sleep. The patient usually awakens within hours feeling fatigued but pain free.

TABLE 34.13
Migraine Without Aura
Arnold M, Headache Classification Committee of the International Headache Society (IHS). The international classification of headache disorders, 3e. Cephalalgia . 2018;38(1):19.
  • A.

    At least five attacks fulfilling criteria B–D

  • B.

    Headache attacks lasting 4–72 hr (untreated or unsuccessfully treated)

  • C.

    Headache has at least two of the following four characteristics:

    • 1.

      Unilateral location

    • 2.

      Pulsating quality

    • 3.

      Moderate or severe pain intensity

    • 4.

      Aggravation by or causing avoidance of routine physical activity (e.g., walking or climbing stairs)

  • D.

    During headache at least one of the following:

    • 1.

      Nausea and/or vomiting

    • 2.

      Photophobia and phonophobia

  • E.

    Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis

ICHD-3, International Classification of Headache Disorders-3.

Migraine with aura

In migraine with aura, the headache is preceded by sensory signs or symptoms termed an aura , which is caused by vasoconstriction and diminished blood flow to the affected region of the brain ( Table 34.14 ). In migraine with typical aura ( Table 34.15 ), the aura is visual and may consist of blurred vision, spreading scintillating scotomata, flashing lights, zigzag lines, and hemianopia. These features typically last less than 60 minutes. Less classic visual disturbances may occur in children. Sensory auras are less common than visual auras and may consist of numbness or tingling.

TABLE 34.14
Migraine Auras
Visual

  • Blurred vision

  • Zig-zag lines

  • Scotoma (field deficits)

  • Scintillations

  • Black dots

  • Kaleidoscope

  • Micropsia, macropsia

  • Metamorphopsia (Alice in Wonderland)

Basilar

  • Dysarthria

  • Vertigo

  • Tinnitus

  • Hearing loss

  • Diplopia

  • Bilateral vision symptoms

  • Ataxia

  • Depressed level of consciousness

  • Bilateral paresthesias

Other

  • Cheiro-oral syndrome

  • Attention loss (poor concentration)

  • Confusion

  • Amnesia

  • Agitation

  • Aphasia (expressive, receptive)

Migrating paresthesia: hand to arm to face to lips to tongue.

TABLE 34.15
Migraine with Typical Aura
Arnold M, Headache Classification Committee of the International Headache Society (IHS). The international classification of headache disorders, 3e. Cephalalgia . 2018;38(1):20–21.
  • A.

    At least two attacks fulfilling criteria B and C

  • B.

    Aura consisting of visual, sensory, and/or speech/language symptoms, each fully reversible, but no motor, brainstem, or retinal symptoms

  • C.

    At least three of the following six characteristics:

    • 1.

      At least one aura symptom spreads gradually over 5 or more min

    • 2.

      Two or more aura symptoms occur in succession

    • 3.

      Each individual aura symptom lasts 5–60 min

    • 4.

      At least one aura symptom is unilateral

    • 5.

      At least one aura symptom is positive (e.g., scintillations or paresthesia)

    • 6.

      The aura is accompanied, or followed within 60 min, by headache

  • D.

    Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis

ICHD-3, International Classification of Headache Disorders-3.

Aura should not be confused with a prodrome, which may include anxiety, fatigue, hunger, thirst, nausea or depression. A prodrome may last many hours before a migraine, while an aura usually lasts less than 60 minutes.

Further types of migraine with aura are classified by the specific aura symptoms.

Migraine with brainstem aura ( Table 34.16 ), previously known as basilar artery migraine , has aura limited to brainstem symptoms such as dysarthria and ataxia. In some patients, the headache may be a minor component of the syndrome. Visual changes may also occur and may include vivid visual images. Vertigo and tinnitus are less common symptoms. Diplopia, vertigo, and vomiting should prompt evaluation for a posterior fossa abnormality, such as a mass or a vascular malformation.

TABLE 34.16
Migraine with Brainstem Aura
Arnold M, Headache Classification Committee of the International Headache Society (IHS). The international classification of headache disorders, 3e. Cephalalgia . 2018;38(1):20–22.
  • A.

    At least two attacks fulfilling criteria B and C

  • B.

    Aura consisting of visual, sensory, and/or speech/language symptoms, each fully reversible, but no motor or retinal symptoms

  • C.

    At least three of the following six characteristics:

    • 1.

      At least one aura symptom spreads gradually over 5 or more min

    • 2.

      Two or more aura symptoms occur in succession

    • 3.

      Each individual aura symptom lasts 5–60 min

    • 4.

      At least one aura symptom is unilateral

    • 5.

      At least one aura symptom is positive (e.g., scintillations or paresthesia)

    • 6.

      The aura is accompanied, or followed within 60 min, by headache

  • D.

    Aura with at least two of the following fully reversible brainstem symptoms:

    • 1.

      Dysarthria (must be distinguished from aphasia)

    • 2.

      Vertigo (must be distinguished from dizziness)

    • 3.

      Tinnitus

    • 4.

      Hypoacusis

    • 5.

      Diplopia

    • 6.

      Ataxia not attributable to sensory deficit

    • 7.

      Decreased level of consciousness (GCS ≤13)

    • a.

      Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis

ICHD-3, International Classification of Headache Disorders-3.

Hemiplegic migraine has an aura that consists of motor weakness and visual, sensory, and/or speech/language symptoms that are fully reversible. Both familial and sporadic forms have been described. The familial hemiplegic migraine is an autosomal dominant disorder with genetic variants described in three separate genes: CACNA1A , ATP1A2 , and SCN1A .

Retinal migraine involves monocular visual disturbances that are fully reversible. This migraine subtype is extremely rare, and other causes of the vision disturbance should be investigated prior to designating this diagnosis (see Chapter 43 ).

The episodic syndromes that may be associated with migraines , previously termed childhood periodic syndromes, are a group of potentially related symptoms that occur with increased frequency in children with migraine. The hallmark of these symptoms is the recurrent episodic nature of the events. These include gastrointestinal-related symptoms (recurrent gastrointestinal disturbance, cyclic vomiting syndrome, and abdominal migraine), benign paroxysmal vertigo, and benign paroxysmal torticollis.

Acute confusional migraine and Alice in Wonderland syndrome are headache conditions that occur primarily in children. Acute confusional migraine, which can be triggered by minor head trauma or have no precipitating event, usually converts to typical migraine with age. Episodes consist of alteration in consciousness, which may include lethargy, agitation, and dysphagia. Attacks last a few hours, with the child eventually falling asleep. The child awakens without memory of the incident. Alice in Wonderland syndrome is characterized by perceptual disturbances in which the sense of proportion or distance, particularly with respect to the body, is distorted. While in adults this syndrome is associated with migraine episodes, Epstein-Barr virus infection seems to be the most common trigger in children. Migraine mimics are noted in Table 34.17 .

TABLE 34.17
Migraine Mimics and Secondary Migraine
  • Trigeminal autonomic cephalgias (TACs)

  • Cluster headache

  • Hemicrania continua

  • Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with or without conjunctival tearing (injection) (SUNCT/SUNA)

  • Ophthalmoplegic (CN III, IV, VI) migraine

  • Arterial dissection

  • Vasculitis/vasculopathies

    • Giant cell arteritis

    • Moyamoya

    • Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL) ( NOTCH 3 )

    • Cerebral autosomal recessive arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CARASIL) ( HTRA1 )

    • SLE

    • Granulomatosis with polyangiitis

    • Primary CNS vasculitis

    • Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS)

    • Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome

  • MELAS

  • Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri)

  • Occipital epilepsy

  • Sudden vision loss

  • Transient ischemic attack

  • Acute glaucoma

  • Sinusitis with intracranial extension

  • Epilepsy with aura

  • Transient headache and neurologic deficits with CSF lymphocytosis (HaNDL)

  • Alternating hemiplegia of childhood ( ATP1A3 )

  • Fabry disease

CN, cranial nerve; CNS, central nervous system; CSF, cerebrospinal fluid; MELAS, mitochondrial encephalomyopathy with lactic acidosis and strokelike episodes; SLE, systemic lupus erythematosus.

Complications of migraine

Status migrainosus is defined as a migraine headache that lasts over 72 hours with debilitating pain or associated symptoms. Diagnosis is based on a propensity for previous prolonged migraine attacks. Some patients have an aura that lasts longer than 1 week, termed persistent aura without infarction . Conversely, when an aura symptom persists for greater than an hour and neuroimaging demonstrates associated ischemic infarction , migrainous infarction is diagnosed. Patients can also have migraine aura-triggered seizures that occur during or within 1 hour of a migraine with aura.

Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalgias

Trigeminal autonomic cephalgia is rare in children under 7 years of age but has been reported in a child as young as 3 months. Onset typically occurs during adolescence or adulthood. Cluster headaches and paroxysmal hemicranias are types of TAC (see Table 34.1 ).

Cluster headache

Cluster headaches are characterized by episodes of pain interspersed between long periods of remission ( Table 34.18 ). Prevalence in childhood is estimated to be between 0.03% and 0.1%; the disorder is more common in males. Pain is unilateral and localized to the orbital, supraorbital, and/or temporal region. The pain begins suddenly and rapidly increases to an excruciating level. Cluster headaches may be as short as 15 minutes or may last as long as 3 hours; episodes tend to be shorter and less frequent in children. Associated findings include ipsilateral conjunctival injection and/or lacrimation, nasal symptoms, eyelid edema, sweating, miosis, and/or ptosis. Children may have less prominent autonomic features than adults and are most likely to experience lacrimation, conjunctival injection, and nasal discharge. A patient may find it impossible to rest and become agitated and restless during an attack, which is in contrast to migraines, during which the patient becomes quiet and withdraws to a dark, cool room for sleep. However, restlessness may not be as severe or characterizable in children, so observation of behavior is very important.

TABLE 34.18
Cluster Headache
Arnold M, Headache Classification Committee of the International Headache Society (IHS). The international classification of headache disorders, 3e. Cephalalgia . 2018;38(1):41–42.
  • A.

    At least five attacks fulfilling criteria B–D

  • B.

    Severe or very severe unilateral orbital, supraorbital, and/or temporal pain lasting 15–180 min (when untreated)

  • C.

    Either or both of the following:

    • 1.

      At least one of the following symptoms or signs, ipsilateral to the headache:

      • a.

        Conjunctival injection and/or lacrimation

      • b.

        Nasal congestion and/or rhinorrhea

      • c.

        Eyelid edema

      • d.

        Forehead and facial sweating

      • e.

        Miosis and/or ptosis

    • 2.

      A sense of restlessness or agitation

  • D.

    Occurring with a frequency between one every other day and eight per day

  • E.

    Not better accounted for by another ICHD-3 diagnosis

ICHD-3, International Classification of Headache Disorders-3.

During part, but less than half, of the active time course of cluster headache, attacks may be less severe and/or of shorter or longer duration.

During part, but less than half, of the active time course of cluster headache, attacks may be less frequent.

Cluster headache is categorized as either episodic or chronic. Episodic cluster headaches occur in a series that may last for a week to months, separated by remission periods of months to years, whereas chronic cluster headaches are defined as occurring for at least 1 year without such a remission period or with remission periods that last <3 months. Cluster headaches are more common in individuals who smoke tobacco.

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