The Development of Secondary Hyperparathyroidism in Chronic Kidney Disease Patients Mineral homeostasis requires precise regulation, and the kidney plays a crucial role. Deterioration of renal function causes an alteration in the regulation of calcium (Ca) and phosphate (P). There are…
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Introduction Achieving adequate control of serum phosphate (P) is one of the most difficult challenges facing clinicians caring for patients with end-stage kidney disease. Despite the global acceptance of the consequences of elevated P and despite a large number of…
Introduction Patients with CKD often have disturbances in divalent ion metabolism, including the dysregulation of calcium and phosphorus, bone disease, and extraosseous calcification. These disturbances were previously referred to as renal osteodystrophy. However, the term renal osteodystrophy is primarily a…
Anemia is a well-known complication of chronic kidney disease (CKD); its severity increases as renal function declines, with nearly 80% of patients on dialysis having a certain degree of anemia. Although the pathogenesis of anemia is multifactorial, it is primarily…
Introduction Anemia is an important clinical complication of chronic kidney disease (CKD). It is defined by the World Health Organization as serum hemoglobin level < 13 g/dL in adult men and postmenopausal women and < 12 g/dL in premenopausal women.…
Protein-Energy Wasting Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are at risk for development of protein-energy malnutrition. The expert panels from the International Society of Renal Nutrition and Metabolism (ISRNM) first coined the term protein-energy wasting (PEW) to describe the malnutrition…
Introduction Protein-energy wasting (PEW) is common in patients undergoing dialysis and is associated with one of the strongest risk factors for death. The prevalence of PEW in observational studies ranges from 18% to 75%. PEW is indicated by decreased body…
Introduction One of the most encountered complications of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD), especially for patients undergoing maintenance hemodialysis (MHD), is the subtle but clinically important progressive deterioration of nutritional status. Advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD) is associated with a unique…
When renal replacement therapy is initiated, regulation of acid-base balance by the kidneys is replaced by a new homeostatic process responding to the physical principles of diffusion and convection rather than to the pH of the body fluids. Consequently, blood…