Cough is a reflex explosive expiration that prevents aspiration and promotes the removal of secretions and foreign particles from the lung. Causes Acute ● Inhaled foreign body ● Respiratory tract infection Chronic Productive ● COPD (mucoid/purulent) ● TB (bloodstained) •…
A convulsion is a series of involuntary violent contractions of voluntary muscles. Causes Neurological ● Epilepsy ● Febrile convulsions Traumatic ● Head injuries Metabolic ● Hypoxia ● Hypo and hyperglycaemia ● Electrolyte abnormalities, e.g. calcium, sodium ● Uraemia Vascular ●…
Constipation is a common complaint that results from decreased frequency of abnormally firm motions. It must be considered relative to the patient’s normal bowel habit. Absolute constipation in the absence of both bowel motions and flatus. Acute constipation due to…
Confusion is a behavioural state of reduced mental clarity, coherence, comprehension and reasoning. The causes may be organic or psychiatric. The organic causes are listed below. Causes (all causes of acute confusion require urgent assessment) Toxins/drugs ● Alcohol intoxication/withdrawal ●…
Coma can be defined as a state of prolonged unconsciousness from which a person cannot be roused, or numerically categorised as a GCS score of <8. Causes (all causes of coma require emergency assessment) Trauma ● Head injury (diffuse axonal…
Clubbing is the selective bulbous enlargement of the distal segments of fingers or toes due to proliferation of connective tissues ( Fig. 10 ). Open full size image Figure 10 Clubbing . Note the exaggerated longitudinal curvature and the loss…
Chest pain is a common presenting symptom of disorders that can range from trivial to life-threatening. Causes Cardiovascular ● Angina ● Myocardial infarction ● Pericarditis/myocarditis ● Acute aortic dissection Gastrointestinal ● Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease ● Peptic ulcer disease ● Oesophageal…
Pain in the breast is a common symptom in general surgical practice. Most cases are benign and due to cyclical mastalgia, but occasionally pain may be the presenting symptom of carcinoma. Causes ● Cyclical mastalgia (fibroadenosis, cystic mastitis) ● Noncyclical…
A lump in the breast is a common clinical presentation. In every case of a breast lump, in both males and females, carcinoma must be excluded. Causes Discrete lumps Malignant ● Carcinoma ( Fig. 7 ) ● Phyllodes tumour (some…
Backache is one of the most common complaints seen in general practice and orthopaedic clinics. Most causes are either traumatic or degenerative, but other causes are numerous and may occur as a result of pathology in almost any system of…