Introduction The urinary tract comprises the kidneys, pelvicalyceal systems, ureters, bladder and urethra. The kidney is responsible for excretion of the waste products of metabolism, the waste products being excreted in the form of an aqueous solution called urine .…
Disorders of the liver The liver is affected by a wide range of disorders, the most important of which are listed below. The liver performs many different metabolic functions and liver disease produces diverse clinical symptoms and signs. The pathophysiology…
Introduction The alimentary system includes the mouth and its associated salivary glands, the oesophagus, stomach, small and large bowels, appendix and anus. The function of the alimentary tract is the ingestion, digestion and absorption of nutrients, along with the storage…
Diseases of the nose and pharynx Allergic rhinitis (hay fever) commonly affects the nose, paranasal sinuses and nasopharynx and can predispose to inflammatory nasal polyps ( Fig. 12.1 ). The sinonasal (Schneiderian) papilloma is particular to the nasal cavity and…
The cardiovascular system includes the heart, blood vessels and circulating blood and is often referred to as the circulatory system. In this chapter, we will focus upon diseases affecting the blood vessels (the arteries and veins) and the heart. Diseases…
Introduction When there is sustained occlusion of arterial blood supply or venous drainage, a type of necrosis can occur called infarction . Common clinical examples of infarction are myocardial infarction (affecting the heart) and cerebral infarction or stroke (affecting the…
Thrombosis The vascular system normally contains fluid blood. However, it is often necessary for blood to coagulate to prevent bleeding following injury to a vessel wall. To control this process of haemostasis , there are interacting systems that either promote…
The wall of an artery has three layers, the intima, media and adventitia, which are separated from each other by thin elastic fibres known as the elastic laminae ( E-Fig. 8.1 ). The intima, the innermost layer, is composed of…
Cellular atypia and dysplasia In the previous chapter, we considered cellular adaptations to a variety of stimuli resulting in alterations in their pattern of growth, whilst still achieving full differentiation Occasionally, cells have an increased rate of division such that…
Introduction Cells exist in, and must adapt to, an environment that is continually changing, reflecting not only physiological processes but also external influences such as drugs or toxins. As briefly discussed in Ch. 2 , if the stimulus is overwhelming,…