5.1 The auditory nerve Introduction of intraoperative monitoring of the hearing function in the 1980s has reduced the incidences of hearing loss as a complication to surgical operations that affect the auditory nerve considerably. The auditory nerve was one of…
4.1 Introduction Neurosurgical procedures for treatment of tumors or vascular lesions along the visual pathways carry a risk of damage to the visual pathways. These procedures include parasellar tumors, pituitary adenomas, craniopharyngiomas, and tuberculum sellae meningiomas. Risk of visual impairment…
3.1 Introduction Intraoperative somatosensory evoked potential (SEP) monitoring selectively helps reduce the risk of injuring the dorsal somatosensory system for proprioception, vibration sense, and discriminative touch . It also complements motor evoked potential (MEP) monitoring of surgeries mainly risking corticospinal…
2.1 Intraoperative monitoring of the motor system: a brief history 2.1.1 Penfield’s time When discussing the use of intraoperative electrical stimulation of the upper motoneurons in humans, it is essential to mention Wilder Penfield (1891–1976). His publication with Edwin Boldrey…
1.1 Introduction The uses of monitoring motor responses for stimulating the human cerebral cortex have clearly expanded beyond the clinical mapping studies of the exposed brain at operation . The discovery that transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) of human motor cortex…