25.1 Introduction Up to 20% of all ischemic strokes are caused by an occlusion of the extracranial part of the internal carotid artery (ICA) . The higher the degree of the carotid artery stenosis, the more likely is the occurrence…
24.1 Introduction In 1829, the surgeon and artist Sir Charles Bell stated that the facial nerve (FN) is the nerve of “anatomy expression” . The FN has two entirely distinct functions in humans and high primates. The first comprises essential…
Abbreviations CMAP compound muscle action potential CN VII cranial nerve VII or facial nerve CPA cerebellopontine angle HBS House–Brackmann score MEP motor-evoked potential VS vestibular schwannoma 23.1 Introduction In vestibular schwannoma (VS) surgery, postoperative facial nerve (CN VII) palsy is…
22.1 Introduction In 1939, Bailey et al. described the treatment of brainstem gliomas as “a pessimistic chapter” in the history of neurosurgery . Thirty years later, Matson stated, “regardless of specific histology (they) must be all classified as malignant tumors,…
21.1 Introduction Intraoperative neuromonitoring for aneurysm surgery follows the rationale to detect pending ischemia related to the vascular territories of interest. First reports about neuromonitoring in intracerebral aneurysm surgery date back into the mid-1980s, where solely somatosensory potentials have been…
20.1 Introduction In surgery of supratentorial brain tumors, prompt and complete resection offers the most favorable outcome; however, damage to essential cortico-subcortical structures may cause permanent neurological deficits . The surgeon faces a complex balance between radicality of resection and…
19.1 Introduction About 20,000 people/year are diagnosed with primary brain cancers in Europe. The 5-year survival rate is around 33%, additionally there is an extensive socioeconomic costs . Gliomas are the most common primary brain tumors. Historically they have been…
18.1 Introduction Posterior root-muscle (PRM) reflexes are short-latency spinal reflexes evoked by the electrical stimulation of lumbar and upper sacral posterior rootles/roots and recorded from various lower limb muscles . Posterior root fibers can be stimulated in humans by electrodes…
17.1 Introduction The closing of eyelids in response to various stimuli is a blink reflex (BR). In humans and primates this closing of eyelids is bilateral while in other animals, especially those with lateralized position of the eyes, it is…
16.1 Introduction A reflex is a relatively simple motor behavior reflexively driven by afferent inputs of diverse modalities. The term “reflexively” refers to the fact that this motor response is not subjected to conscious voluntary control, although it may be…