HPV Biology General Information of Human Papillomavirus Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are members of the Papillomaviridae family of viruses. They are small double-stranded DNA viruses with a circular genome of approximately 8000 base pairs (bp) and an outer protein capsid, with…
Introduction Molecular techniques have become an integral part of pathology for improved early diagnosis of premalignant lesions and cancer, prognostication, or prediction of therapy response. Cancer is a disease of the genes, and genetic alterations are a hallmark of cancer.…
Introduction Immunocytology or immunocytochemistry (ICC) involves the application of immunohistochemistry (IHC) in aspiration and exfoliative cytopathology. These immunostains have improved the ability to confidently make specific and accurate diagnoses in cytopathology, and have largely replaced the use of special stains.…
Introduction On a standard “adoption curve,” where interest in a new technology initially runs high, is followed by disappointment, then by maturation of the technology and finally a plateau of acceptance, cytology automation is firmly entrenched on the acceptance plateau.…
Introduction to Digital Cytology: Basic Principles The change in image format from analog to digital has created a revolution. In fields such as photography and radiology, the transfer of imaging technology from film-based to digital formats has seen the bankruptcies…
Introduction The best morphologic presentation obtained from any cytologic specimen requires an understanding of the factors that went into collecting and preparing the specimen. An accurate cytodiagnosis is based on adequate sampling, proper evaluation of the sample, proper fixation, preparation…
Introduction The development of novel therapeutic modalities for treating patients with malignancies and transplantation rejection is an ongoing process, at the time of this writing. The prototype of different genres includes radiation therapy, chemotherapeutic agents, biologic response modifiers, and innovative…
Introduction Incidence of Pediatric Tumors and Histologic Types Children are not small adults, and they show a distinctive incidence, histologic typology, and biologic behavior for most malignancies, which differ considerably from those of adults. Pediatric tumors are often linked to…
Introduction Technical Aspects Cytological evaluation of the pancreas is for diagnosis of a pancreatic mass or cyst. A fine-needle aspiration (FNA) of the pancreas can be performed percutaneously by a radiologist or endoscopically by a gastroenterologist. A percutaneous FNA is…
Introduction Cancer growth in the liver is a frequent finding at laparotomy or autopsy. In Tao's series of 1691 cases of aspiration biopsy of the liver, 1217 (72%) were metastatic cancers. Because positive findings for hepatic malignancy imply a grave…