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Atrial Fibrillation The treatment of atrial fibrillation (AF) with antiarrhythmic medications have been limited by modest efficacies, proarrhythmic side effects, and systemic toxicities. Conversely, rate-control strategies leave patients in AF and do not address the impaired hemodynamics or symptoms associated…

Current nonpharmacologic treatments for cardiac arrhythmias include catheter ablation, implantation of pacemakers and cardioverter-defibrillator devices, and surgery. These modalities can be used to treat essentially all supraventricular and ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Although the indications for surgical intervention have narrowed, surgery remains…