Key points Lumbar spinal stenosis is a complex disease with a plethora of clinical and imaging phenotypes. Developmental lumbar spinal stenosis is caused by mal-development of pedicles and posterior elements leading to narrowed bony spinal canals, and these patients are…
Key points Modic changes are subchondral and vertebral bone marrow changes in conjunction with intervertebral disc degeneration, and they are classified into three categories (types 1, 2, and 3) based on magnetic resonance imaging appearance. Modic changes, especially Modic type…
Key points The vertebral endplate is the key regulator of disc nutrient and oxygen transport. The endplate is composed of an inner bony and an outer cartilaginous layer in relation to the vertebra. Vertebral endplates are innervated so represent an…
Key points The process of intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration consists of gradual structural and biochemical changes that may lead to pain and disability. IVD degeneration is multifaceted, mediated by biomechanical alterations, nutritional compromise, genetics, and environmental factors among others Various…