Pyloric Stenosis and Other Congenital Anomalies of the Stomach

Etiology

The cause of pyloric stenosis is unknown, but many factors have been implicated. Pyloric stenosis is usually not present at birth and is more concordant in monozygotic than dizygotic twins. It is unusual in stillbirths and probably develops after birth. Pyloric stenosis has been associated with eosinophilic gastroenteritis, Apert syndrome, Zellweger syndrome, trisomy 18, Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome, and Cornelia de Lange syndrome. An association has been found with the use of erythromycin in neonates with highest risk if the medication is given within the first 2 wk of life. There have also been reports of higher incidence of pyloric stenosis among mostly female infants of mothers treated with macrolide antibiotics during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Abnormal muscle innervation, elevated serum levels of prostaglandins, and infant hypergastrinemia have been implicated. Reduced levels of neuronal nitric oxide synthase have been found with altered expression of the neuronal nitric oxide synthase exon 1c regulatory region, which influences the expression of the neuronal nitric oxide synthase gene. Reduced nitric oxide might contribute to the pathogenesis of pyloric stenosis.

Clinical Manifestations

Non-bilious vomiting is the initial symptom of pyloric stenosis. The vomiting may or may not be projectile initially but is usually progressive, occurring immediately after a feeding. Emesis might follow each feeding, or it may be intermittent. The vomiting usually starts after 3 wk of age, but symptoms can develop as early as the first wk of life and as late as the 5th mo. Approximately 20% have intermittent emesis from birth that then progresses to the classic picture. After vomiting, the infant is hungry and wants to feed again. As vomiting continues, a progressive loss of fluid, hydrogen ion, and chloride leads to hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis . Awareness of pyloric stenosis has led to earlier identification of patients with fewer instances of chronic malnutrition and severe dehydration and at times a subclinical self-resolving hypertrophy.

Hyperbilirubinemia is the most common clinical association of pyloric stenosis, also known as icteropyloric syndrome . Unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia is more common than conjugated and usually resolves with surgical correction of the pyloric stenosis. It may be associated with a decreased level of glucuronyl transferase as seen in approximately 5% of affected infants; mutations in the bilirubin uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase gene (UGT1A1) have also been implicated. If conjugated hyperbilirubinemia is a part of the presentation, other etiologies need to be investigated. Other coexistent clinical diagnoses have been described, including eosinophilic gastroenteritis, hiatal hernia, peptic ulcer, congenital nephrotic syndrome, congenital heart disease, and congenital hypothyroidism.

The diagnosis has traditionally been established by palpating the pyloric mass. The mass is firm, movable, approximately 2 cm in length, olive shaped, hard, best palpated from the left side, and located above and to the right of the umbilicus in the mid epigastrium beneath the liver's edge. The olive is easiest palpated after an episode of vomiting. After feeding, there may be a visible gastric peristaltic wave that progresses across the abdomen ( Fig. 355.1 ).

Two imaging studies are commonly used to establish the diagnosis. Ultrasound examination confirms the diagnosis in the majority of cases. Criteria for diagnosis include pyloric thickness 3-4 mm, an overall pyloric length 15-19 mm, and pyloric diameter of 10-14 mm ( Fig. 355.2 ). Ultrasonography has a sensitivity of approximately 95%. When contrast studies are performed, they demonstrate an elongated pyloric channel (string sign), a bulge of the pyloric muscle into the antrum (shoulder sign), and parallel streaks of barium seen in the narrowed channel, producing a “double tract sign” ( Fig. 355.3 ).

Differential Diagnosis

Gastric waves are occasionally visible in small, emaciated infants who do not have pyloric stenosis. Infrequently, gastroesophageal reflux, with or without a hiatal hernia, may be confused with pyloric stenosis. Gastroesophageal reflux disease can be differentiated from pyloric stenosis by radiographic studies. Adrenal insufficiency from the adrenogenital syndrome can simulate pyloric stenosis, but the absence of a metabolic acidosis and elevated serum potassium and urinary sodium concentrations of adrenal insufficiency aid in differentiation (see Chapter 594 ). Inborn errors of metabolism can produce recurrent emesis with alkalosis (urea cycle) or acidosis (organic acidemia) and lethargy, coma, or seizures. Vomiting with diarrhea suggests gastroenteritis, but patients with pyloric stenosis occasionally have diarrhea. Rarely, a pyloric membrane or pyloric duplication results in projectile vomiting, visible peristalsis, and, in the case of a duplication, a palpable mass ( Table 355.1 ). Duodenal stenosis proximal to the ampulla of Vater results in the clinical features of pyloric stenosis but can be differentiated by the presence of a pyloric mass on physical examination or ultrasonography.

Treatment

The preoperative treatment is directed toward correcting the fluid, acid–base, and electrolyte losses. Correction of the alkalosis is essential to prevent postoperative apnea, which may be associated with anesthesia. Most infants can be successfully rehydrated within 24 hr. Vomiting usually stops when the stomach is empty, and only an occasional infant requires nasogastric suction.

The surgical procedure of choice is pyloromyotomy. The traditional Ramstedt procedure is performed through a short transverse skin incision. The underlying pyloric mass is cut longitudinally to the layer of the submucosa, and the incision is closed. Laparoscopic technique is equally successful and in one study resulted in a shorter time to full feedings and discharge from the hospital as well as greater parental satisfaction. The success of laparoscopy depends on the skill of the surgeon. Postoperative vomiting occurs in half the infants and is thought to be secondary to edema of the pylorus at the incision site. In most infants, feedings can be initiated within 12-24 hr after surgery and advanced to maintenance oral feedings within 36-48 hr after surgery. Persistent vomiting suggests an incomplete pyloromyotomy, gastritis, gastroesophageal reflux disease, or another cause of the obstruction. The surgical treatment of pyloric stenosis is curative, with an operative mortality of 0–0.5%. Endoscopic balloon dilation has been successful in infants with persistent vomiting secondary to incomplete pyloromyotomy.

Conservative management with nasoduodenal feedings is advisable in patients who are not good surgical candidates. Oral and intravenous atropine sulfate (pyloric muscle relaxant) has also been described when surgical expertise is not available with 80% success rate described in some studies. In conservative protocols, atropine is administered intravenously at a dose of 0.01 mg/kg 6 times a day 5 min before feeding. During atropine infusion, the heart rate needs to be continuously monitored by electrocardiography. Oral feeding is started at a volume of 10 mL formula, 6 times a day. The volume is increased day by day until patients tolerate 150 mL/kg/day unless vomiting occurs more than twice a day. When patients are able to tolerate the full volume of formula without vomiting more than twice a day, 0.02 mg/kg atropine is administered orally 6 times a day before feeding. As the conservative management takes longer and oral feedings may not be tolerated at first, worsening of the nutrition status may occur and total parenteral nutrition may be required. It was also postulated that surgical management is more time and cost effective.

Acknowledgment

Anna K. Hunter, MD contributed to the prior version of this chapter.