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Smallpox and Vaccinia

The World Health Assembly certified the eradication of smallpox on May 8, 1980, an event that many hoped would consign smallpox to history. However, the former deputy director of the Soviet Union’s BioPreparat activities has written that manufacturing facilities had been constructed that were capable of producing smallpox virus in ton quantities. These claims also specified that the State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology (the…

Rubella Vaccines

RUBELLA “German measles is extremely infectious. People catch it very easily. And there’s one thing about it that you’ve got to remember. If a woman contracts it in the first four months of pregnancy it may have a terribly serious effect. It may cause an unborn child to be born blind or to be born mentally affected.” Agatha Christie, in “The Mirror Crack’d From Side To…

Rotavirus Vaccines

## Rotaviruses were the leading cause of severe dehydrating diarrhea in infants and young children throughout the world before rotavirus vaccines became available. Most children were infected by the time they reached 2 to 3 years of age. , Even in developed nations, where standards of hygiene are high, rotavirus was the most common cause of severe infant diarrhea. In the United States, before the introduction…

Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccines and Monoclonal Antibodies

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the leading cause of hospitalization for pneumonia and other lower respiratory tract illnesses (LRTI) in infants and children worldwide. In the United States, it is estimated that approximately 150,000 infants are hospitalized annually with RSV pneumonia or bronchiolitis. A review of national databases in the U.S. estimated RSV mortality rates in children at approximately 3–4/10,000 admissions, or approximately 50–160 deaths per…

Lyssaviruses and Rabies Vaccines

“…In the realm of fantasy, consider the statement of Aristotle (otherwise a great philosopher) that only animals and not humans die of rabies… perhaps, optimistically speaking, the 21st century will bring us a glimmer of hope for the successful treatment of human rabies….” Hilary Koprowski, Rabies in the face of the 21st century. Zoon Publ Hlth. 2009;56:258–261. Ever the optimist, the late Hilary Koprowski’s dream of…

Poliovirus Vaccine–Live

INTRODUCTION History of the Disease Poliomyelitis probably has affected humankind since ancient times, as demonstrated by the depiction in an Egyptian stele dated between 1403 and 1365 BCE, of a “crippled young man, apparently a priest, with a withered and shortened right leg, and with his foot held in a typical equinus position characteristic of prior flaccid paralysis.” However, it was not until 1789 that Michael…

Poliovirus Vaccine—Inactivated

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION Not since the introduction of the rabies vaccine by Louis Pasteur was the public interest in vaccines stirred as much as by the development and testing of inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV), and not since Albert Einstein had a scientist received the public adulation accorded to Jonas Salk, the vaccine’s inventor. Contributing to this phenomenon was the rise of poliomyelitis as an epidemic disease, its…

Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccines

BACKGROUND Since the late 19th century, the study of Streptococcus pneumoniae and pneumococcal infections has occupied a central position in developing a scientific basis for controlling infectious diseases. , The organism was first isolated and grown in the laboratory almost simultaneously by Sternberg and Pasteur in 1881. During the next decade, the pneumococcus was shown to be the principal cause of lobar pneumonia. To this day,…

Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine and Pneumococcal Common Protein Vaccines

The original demonstration by Avery and Goebel, in 1929, that capsular polysaccharides were immunogenic when linked to a protein, and 60 years later, the demonstrated efficacy of Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) conjugate vaccines in the 1990s (see Chapter 25) led to an extraordinary public health intervention in the year 2000 when conjugated pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines were introduced for the prevention of pneumococcal disease in infants.…

Plague Vaccines

E. Diane Williamson, PhD, DSc Defence Science and Technology Laboratory CBR Division Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Porton Down, Salisbury Wiltshire United Kingdom Petra C.F. Oyston, PhD, BSc(Hons) Defence Science and Technology Laboratory CBR Division Dstl Porton Down, Salisbury Wiltshire United Kingdom HISTORY OF PLAGUE PANDEMICS During the last two millennia, the bacterium Yersinia pestis has been responsible for social and economic devastation on a scale…

Pertussis Vaccines

INTRODUCTION History of Disease Pertussis (whooping cough) is a bacterial respiratory infection caused by Bordetella pertussis, a Gram-negative bacillus. Its major manifestation is a protracted cough that lasts many weeks, marked by characteristic intense paroxysms that often terminate in an inspiratory “whoop.” Absent vaccination, nearly all children will contract pertussis. In 1502, the Persian physician Bahaodowle Razi reported three outbreaks of a disease, more common in…

Parasitic Disease Vaccines

Parasitic diseases caused by helminths and unicellular eukaryotes (protozoa) are major causes of human disease in the resource-poor nations of the tropics. The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation’s Global Burden of Disease Study for 2019 estimated that 643,000 people die annually from malaria alone, and approximately 10,000 people die annually from either Chagas disease or schistosomiasis, while 5000 from leishmaniasis. It is also important to…

Norovirus

Human noroviruses (HuNoVs) have become the leading cause of acute nonbacterial gastroenteritis in countries where rotavirus vaccination has been successfully implemented. Overall, HuNoVs have been identified in ~18% of reported acute gastroenteritis cases worldwide. In the United States, HuNoVs result in approximately 21 million cases of gastroenteritis, 400,000 emergency department visits, 71,000 hospitalizations, 800 deaths, and an annual loss of an estimated 5000 quality-adjusted life years.…

Noninfectious Disease Vaccines

This chapter provides an overview of the challenges and advances in vaccine development for chronic and noncommunicable diseases. Because of space limitations it is not possible to provide an exhaustive representation of the field; consequently, we address a few major themes with examples of challenges and vaccine-based solutions. There also is a vast literature on T-cell–based cancer vaccines, which are discussed comprehensively in Chapter 14 .…

Mumps Vaccines

HISTORY OF THE DISEASE The clinical picture of mumps was first described by Hippocrates in the 5th century bc in his first book of Epidemics , in which he described outbreaks among young males characterized by swelling about one or both ears, occasionally accompanied by painful swelling of one or both testes, referring to parotitis and orchitis, the hallmarks of this infectious disease. Recognition of neurovirulence…

Meningococcal Vaccines Directed at Capsular Group B

## Meningococcal disease was first described in Geneva, Switzerland in 1805. Different capsular groups of meningococci were first recognized serologically in 1909, and serogroup B was defined based on the immunological difference in capsular polysaccharide structure in the 1940s. Capsular group B N. meningitidis has caused substantial disease in Europe, the Americas, and Australasia, but is also seen in other geographic regions ( Fig. 40.1 ).…

Meningococcal Capsular Group A, C, W, and Y Conjugate Vaccines

## Meningococcal disease, caused by the bacterium Neisseria meningitidis , is a deadly illness that can progress rapidly. The case fatality rate, which was 70%–85% before the advent of antibiotics, is now 10%–15%, and many survivors have long term sequelae such as hearing loss, cognitive deficits, or amputations due to necrosis of the extremities. The disease is found globally but the incidence and most common capsular…

Measles Vaccines

INTRODUCTION History of Measles The written history of measles is often traced to the writings of the Persian physician Rhazes, also known as Abu Becr, who lived during the 10th century ( Fig. 38.1 ). However, the disease was apparently recognized as early as the 7th century by such persons as the Hebrew physician Al Yehudi. Comparative analyses of measles virus genomes suggest an origin as…

Online Supplements

Online Supplement 1 Geographical distribution of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax Geographic distribution of malaria case incidence rates (number of clinical malaria cases per 1,000 population) in 2019 for P. falciparum (A) and P. vivax (B). This figure was reproduced from the Oxford Malaria Atlas Project (Malaria Atlas Project, 2021). You’re Reading a Preview Become a Clinical Tree membership for Full access and enjoy Unlimited articles…

Malaria Vaccines

BACKGROUND Human malaria is caused by five species of the Plasmodium protozoan parasites: P. falciparum , P. vivax , P. ovale , P. malariae , and P. knowlesi . Malaria caused by these protozoan parasites occupies a remarkable place in the history of infectious diseases. In ancient Chinese, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman writings, intermittent fevers and malaria symptoms of headaches and chills were mentioned. These symptoms…