This chapter brings together the regional descriptions of the arteries, veins and lymphatic vessels and their draining nodes that appear in the relevant sections of Chapter 24, Chapter 79 . The text is not illustrated: all cross-referenced figures and videos are HTML-linked to the corresponding figure or video in the appropriate chapter in the eBook. Arterial Supply of the Head and Neck The head and neck…

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of spinal and cranial nerves, their associated ganglia (autonomic and sensory) and their ramifications that transmit afferent and efferent information between the central nervous system (CNS) and the rest of the body. It also includes the peripheral part of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), notably the sympathetic trunks and the sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia and their ramifications, and the…

The ankle joint (talocrural joint) is a diarthrodial articulation involving the distal tibia and fibula and the body of the talus; it is the only example in the human body of a true mortise joint. The human foot is a complex structure adapted to allow orthograde bipedal stance and locomotion and is the only part of the body that is in regular contact with the ground…

The knee is the largest synovial joint in the body. It consists of three functional compartments that collectively form a dynamic, specialized hinge joint. During gait, the knee is able to withstand impressive weight-bearing loads while conducting precision movements, providing a stable yet fluid mechanism for relatively efficient bipedal locomotion. The complex arrangement of intra- and extracapsular ligaments that helps to counter the considerable biomechanical demands…

The pelvic girdle consists of the paired hip bones (each composed of the ilium, ischium and pubis) and the sacrum. The two pubic bones articulate anteriorly at the pubic symphysis and the sacrum articulates posteriorly with the two iliac bones at the sacroiliac joint; the bones are virtually incapable of independent movement, except in the female during parturition or because of pathological change. The pelvic girdle…

The structure of the lower limb is specialized for support of the body’s weight, locomotion and maintenance of body stability (balance). Indeed, adaptations for weight-bearing and stability account for the major structural and functional differences between the upper and lower limbs. The inguinal (pelvicrural) and gluteal (buttock) regions are important anatomical junctional zones between the trunk and the lower limb through which longitudinally running nerves and…

The female reproductive system consists of the lower genital tract (vulva and vagina) and the upper tract (uterus and cervix with associated uterine (Fallopian) tubes and ovaries). Lower Genital Tract Vulva The female external genitalia or vulva (pudendum) include the mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vestibule of the vagina, vestibular bulbs and the greater vestibular glands (Bartholin’s glands) ( Fig. 75.1 ). Mons pubis…

The male reproductive system includes the gonads, spermatic cord, accessory sex glands and external genitalia. The male gonads, the testes, are responsible for spermatogenesis and steroidogenesis, thereby regulating reproductive function as well as normal physical and sexual development and behaviour. The accessory sex glands include the prostate, seminal glands (vesicles) and bulbo-urethral glands. Prostatic and seminal gland secretions constitute most of the seminal fluid volume, containing…

Urinary Bladder The urinary bladder is a reservoir. Its size, shape, position and relations all vary according to its content and the state of the neighbouring viscera. When the bladder is empty, it lies entirely in the lesser pelvis, but as it distends it expands superiorly into the abdominal cavity ( Video 73.1 ). An empty bladder is somewhat tetrahedral and has a fundus, body, neck,…

Kidney The kidneys excrete end products of metabolism and excess water. These actions are essential for the control of concentrations of various substances in the body, maintaining electrolyte and water balance approximately constant in the tissue fluids. The kidneys also have endocrine functions, producing and releasing erythropoietin, which affects red blood cell formation; renin, which influences blood pressure; 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol (the metabolically active form of vitamin D),…

Lesser Pelvis The lesser pelvis is a bowl-shaped structure formed from the sacrum, pubis, ilium, ischium, the ligaments that interconnect these bones, and the muscles that line their inner surfaces. It begins at the level of the plane passing through the promontory of the sacrum, the arcuate line of the ilium, the pecten pubis and the posterior surface of the pubic crest. This plane, or ‘inlet’,…

The suprarenal (adrenal) glands lie immediately superior and slightly anterior to the superior pole of each kidney (see Figure 72.5, Figure 61.8 ). The glands are golden yellow in colour and are enclosed within the renal fascia, where they are separated from the kidneys by a small amount of loose connective tissue. Each gland possesses two functionally and structurally distinct areas: an outer cortex and an…

The spleen is a large, encapsulated, complex mass of vascular and lymphoid tissues situated in the upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity between the fundus of the stomach and the respiratory diaphragm. It is mainly concerned with phagocytosis and immune responses but is also important in immunological defence, metabolism and maintenance of circulating blood elements ( , ; Table 69.1 ). In the fetus, the…