Introduction

Historical Background and Definition

The limb-girdle muscular dystrophies (LGMDs) are a diverse and heterogeneous group of disorders within the broader field of genetic muscle disease. The term LGMD was first formally introduced in the 1950s to include the category of a larger group of patients with muscle weakness that could not be recognized under the major muscular dystrophy groups identified at the time, such as X-linked Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) or facioscapulohumeral dystrophy (FSHD). In a classic paper, Walton and Nattrass delineated the clinical phenotype: childhood onset of proximal weakness, slow progression, and autosomal recessive inheritance in the majority of cases.

Subsequently, a number of diverse conditions including acquired inflammatory, metabolic, mitochondrial, congenital/structural, toxic, paraneoplastic, and endocrine myopathies, and even neurogenic diseases such as spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) were found to present with a similar clinical phenotype, complicating and challenging the clinical usefulness of LGMDs as an entity. Some authors use the term limb-girdle syndrome to describe the clinical picture prior to elucidation of a pathophysiological or genetic cause.

LGMD is defined as a muscular dystrophy presenting with predominantly proximal weakness, sparing facial, extraocular, and distal extremity muscles (at least early in the course of the disease). Based on this definition, the muscle biopsy is of great importance for inclusion into this group and also to evaluate for other causes of the limb-girdle syndrome. The muscle biopsy typically shows dystrophic features, including degeneration and regeneration, increased internalized nuclei, fiber size variability, increased endomysial fibrosis, and fatty replacement. However, just mild, nonspecific myopathic changes may also be seen (in milder cases, earlier in the disease or in less affected muscles) and still be consistent with the diagnosis of LGMD.

Exact epidemiologic estimates for LGMDs are difficult to ascertain and vary depending on different populations, some owing to founder effects (e.g. the Amish, Libyan Jews, a Reunion Island community, among others). Using strict diagnostic criteria, some estimate an overall prevalence of 6 to 8 per million for autosomal recessive and sporadic cases. A more recent study in a population in Northern England estimated the overall prevalence of LGMD at 2.27 per 100,000. Autosomal recessive LGMDs are more common than their autosomal dominant counterparts and will be discussed first in the chapter.

Genetic Nomenclature

The nomenclature first proposed by the European Neuromuscular Center (ENMC) workshop on LGMD has simply designated all autosomal dominant LGMD as LGMD 1A, 1B, 1C, and so on and autosomal recessive LGMD as LGMD 2A, 2B, 2C, and so on. The letters indicate separate LGMDs by the order of the gene product identified or linked to a specific locus. The current most common LGMDs are summarized in Table 34.1 .

Table 34.1
Classification of Limb-girdle Muscular Dystrophies
LGMD Genetic Classification and Alternative Name Locus Gene Symbol Protein Product
Autosomal Dominant
LGMD 1A (Myotilinopathy) 5q31.2 TTID, MYOT Myotilin
LGMD 1B (Laminopathy) 1q22 LMNA lamin A/C
LGMD 1C (Caveolinopathy) 3p25.3 CAV3 Caveolin-3
LGMD 1D (Desminopathy) 6q23 DES Desmin
LGMD 1E 7q36.3 DNAJB6 DNAJB6
Autosomal Recessive
LGMD 2A (Calpainopathy) 15q15.1 CAPN3 Calpain-3
LGMD 2B (Dysferlinopathy) 2p13.2 DYSF Dysferlin
LGMD 2C (γ-Sarcoglycanopathy) 13q12 SGCG γ-Sarcoglycan
LGMD 2D (α-Sarcoglycanopathy) 17q21 SGCA α-Sarcoglycan
LGMD 2E (β-Sarcoglycanopathy) 4q12 SGCB β-Sarcoglycan
LGMD 2F (δ-Sarcoglycanopathy) 5q33-34 SGCD δ-Sarcoglycan
LGMD 2G (Telethoninopathy) 17q12 TCAP Telethonin
LGMD 2H 9q33.1 TRIM32 TRIM32
LGMD 2I 19q13.3 FKRP FKRP
LGMD 2J (titinopathy) 2q31.2 TTN Titin
LGMD 2K 9q34.13 POMT1 POMT1
LGMD 2L (Anoctaminopathy) 11p14.3 ANO5 Anoctamin-5
LGMD 2M 9q31 Fukutin Fukutin
LGMD 2N 14q24 POMT2 POMT2
LGMD 2O 1p32 POMGnT1 POMGnT1
LGMD 2P 3p21 POMGnT1 DAG1
LGMD 2T 3p21.31 GMPPB GMPPB
Abbreviations: LGMD, Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy; TRIM32, tripartite-motif containing 32; FKRP, Fukutin related protein; POMT1, protein-O-mannosyltransferase 1; POMT2, protein-O-mannosyltransferase 2; POMGnT1, protein O-linked mannose N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase 1; DAG1, dystroglycan; GMPPB, GDP-Mannose pyrophosphorylase B.

As discussed in this chapter, a purely genetic nomenclature is an oversimplification and may have outlived its usefulness. Several of the genes and proteins implicated in LGMDs can result in very divergent phenotypes, e.g. congenital muscular dystrophy, Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (EDMD), cardiomyopathy, neuropathy, or even lipodystrophy for LMNA . In addition, other muscular dystrophies may also present with an LGMD-like phenotype. As a result, a nomenclature based on proteins or cellular physiology informed by the clinical phenotype may be more useful.

Nonetheless, we will still be mentioning both nomenclatures, as the primary goal of this chapter is to characterize the most common limb-girdle muscular dystrophies in a way that is useful for clinical practice and provide a rational approach to the workup of patients with LGMD.

Autosomal Recessive Limb-Girdle Muscular Dystrophies

Classic autosomal recessive LGMDs include the sarcoglycanopathies (LGMD 2C–F), calpainopathy (LGMD 2A), and dysferlinopathy (LGMD 2B). This order reflects their average age of onset from younger to older. Two additional more common autosomal recessive LGMDs are attributed to mutations in the α-dystroglycanopathy gene fukutin-related protein ( FKRP ) (LGMD 2I), with a broad range of age of onset, and anoctamin-5 (LGMD 2L), a primarily adult-onset disease that resembles dysferlinopathy. There are a number of additional recessive LGMD forms, stemming from mutations of other α-dystroglycanopathy genes as well as others that we will touch upon briefly. In this section, we will discuss the clinical features and pathophysiologic mechanisms of major autosomal recessive LGMDs. Understanding the role of protein products of these genes and their functional associations in muscle has provided a window to study pathophysiologic mechanisms of LGMDs with the goal of identifying therapeutic targets.

Sarcoglycanopathies (LGMD 2C–F)

Sarcoglycanopathies were first described as autosomal recessive disorders resembling Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). In addition to the autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance, the immunohistochemical presence of dystrophin on muscle biopsy differentiated sarcoglycanopathies from DMD. While initially referred to as SCARMD (for s evere c hildhood a utosomal r ecessive m uscular d ystrophy), many patients with milder presentations were subsequently identified, and the term SCARMD is no longer used widely.

The proportion of patients with sarcoglycanopathies among patients with muscular dystrophy depends on age, clinical severity, and the population studied; on average, they are found in approximately 20% to 25% of all patients with muscular dystrophy. However, sarcoglycanopathies comprise roughly 50% to 60% of the more severe LGMDs as opposed to 10% to 20% of the milder forms. Thus, a patient with an early onset, severe muscular dystrophy has a higher likelihood of having a sarcoglycanopathy compared to a patient with a juvenile onset, milder phenotype.

Pathophysiology

Dystrophin-associated proteins

Dystrophin, a large molecule located under the sarcolemma of myocytes, is mutated in DMD and BMD as described in Chapter 30 . Its N-terminus and rod domain interact with the cytoskeleton while its C-terminus interacts with several intracellular and transmembrane proteins, known as the dystrophin-associated proteins (DAPs) ( Figure 34.1 ).

Figure 34.1, Schematic depiction of the complex of dystrophin-associated proteins and their association with the extracellular matrix.

Intracellular DAPs

The intracellular DAPs include the dystrobrevins and the syntrophins. Dystrobrevins share a similar structure to the C-terminal domain of dystrophin, with α-helical coiled-coils mediating their association. In addition, dystrobrevins interact with the sarcoglycan complex and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS). Both dystrophins and dystrobrevins bind syntrophins. To date, mutations in dystrobrevins or syntrophins have not been associated with muscle disease in humans. However, α-dystrobrevin deficient mice show evidence of a muscular dystrophy.

Transmembrane DAPs: Dystroglycan complex

The dystroglycan complex includes two proteins: β-dystroglycan, a transmembrane protein, binds the C-terminal region of dystrophin intracellularly and interacts with α-dystroglycan extracellularly. α-Dystroglycan, a heavily glycosylated protein, connects the dystrophin-β-dystroglycan axis of proteins to the G domain laminin α2, the heavy chain of laminin 211 (merosin). Laminin α2 ( LAMA2 ) mutations are one of the most common causes of congenital muscular dystrophy (see Chapter 29 ). In essence, the dystroglycan complex structurally links the intracellular dystrophin-cytoskeleton complex to the extracellular matrix. Mutations in dystroglycan itself are extremely rare, as they are usually incompatible with development. However, abnormal glycosylation of α-dystroglycan caused by mutations in a series of proven and putative glycosyltransferases, as well as cooperating components, can cause congenital muscular dystrophy or autosomal recessive LGMD, specifically LGMD2I (see the following).

Transmembrane DAPs: Sarcoglycan complex

The sarcoglycan complex in skeletal muscle includes four proteins: α-, β- , γ-, and δ-sarcoglycan. α-Sarcoglycan (50kDa) and γ-sarcoglycan (35kDa) are encoded on chromosome 17q21 and 13q12, respectively, and are almost exclusively expressed in skeletal muscle, though γ- and δ-sarcoglycan are expressed in smooth muscle as well. β-Sarcoglycan (43kDa) and δ-sarcoglycan (35kDa) are encoded on chromosome 4q12 and 5q33, respectively, and have more widespread expression.

Two additional widely expressed sarcoglycan-like molecules, ε- and ζ-sarcoglycan, have also been identified. While no human diseases are linked to ζ-sarcoglycan mutations, some patients with an autosomal dominant myoclonus-dystonia syndrome carry heterozygous ε-sarcoglycan mutations.

The exact nature of the association of the sarcoglycan complex with dystrophin is not known; however, associations with dystroglycans, synaptobrevin, dystrobrevin, and nNOS have been shown. γ-Filamin/filamin C, an actin binding protein, is an intracellular molecule that is known to interact with the sarcoglycan complex, an association that theoretically provides an additional point of interaction with the cytoskeleton. Biglycan provides an extracellular link between the sarcoglycan complex and dystroglycan. Recently, muscle specific aquaporin-4, a water channel, was shown to interact with the sarcoglycan complex via α1-syntrophin. Sarcospan, which is severely reduced in sarcoglycanopathies, is another protein that is intimately associated with the sarcoglycan complex. Sarcospan mutations are not linked to muscle disease, however, and its function remains elusive. These complex associations likely stabilize the DAPs and provide a structural and functional link to intracellular signals through different pathways, but the exact relevance of these interactions to muscle disease is yet to be identified.

Genetics and Mutations

Mutations in all four major sarcoglycan genes cause four genetically separate forms of autosomal recessive LGMD with almost indistinguishable clinical phenotypes. Although all four disorders appear to have a worldwide distribution, there are certain regional differences owing primarily to founder mutations (e.g. a high proportion of γ-sarcoglycanopathy in North Africa and the Mediterranean because of a founder mutation). Of the sarcoglycan mutations, α-sarcoglycanopathies are likely the most common type in Europe, North America, and Brazil, accounting for more than 50% of genetically proven sarcoglycanopathies. These are followed in varying proportion by β- and γ-sarcoglycan mutations, with δ-sarcoglycan as the least commonly mutated sarcoglycan in most series.

In α- and β-sarcoglycanopathy, in particular, there are high proportions of missense mutations, the majority of which are located in the respective extracellular domains. Approximately one-third of the α-sarcoglycan mutations map to the cadherin-like domains, suggesting a role for calcium-mediated protein interactions in the pathogenesis process. Among them, the single mutation Arg77Cys is the most frequent. Many other mutations are also identified, however, and genotype/phenotype correlations are difficult to evaluate because mutations often occur in compound heterozygous states. Even with homozygous mutations, there can be considerable phenotypic variability. Truncating or nonsense mutations likely give rise to a more severe phenotype, whereas missense mutations are much more variable.

Four β-sarcoglycan missense and nonsense mutations are known to occur. In the Indiana Amish, there is a founder mutation, Thr151Arg , associated with a variable phenotype. There is a relative clustering of mutations in the immediately extracellular domain, encoded on exon 3 of the gene. Similar to α-sarcoglycan, nonsense or truncating mutations lead to a more severe phenotype, but a higher proportion of missense mutations in β-sarcoglycan cause a phenotype at least as severe, particularly when the mutations are predicted to disrupt the secondary structure in the domain immediately following the transmembrane stretch. This may reflect the central position of β-sarcoglycan within the complex.

The most common mutation in γ-sarcoglycan is the frame-shifting deletion of a single thymidine, del521T , which originated in North Africa as a founder mutation and is readily found in Mediterranean countries or migrants from that area. As a result, γ-sarcoglycanopathy is the most common form of sarcoglycanopathy in these countries. Phenotypes may vary significantly even within the same families. Another founder mutation, Cys283Tyr , commonly found in the Romany (Gypsy) population in Europe, results in a consistently severe phenotype despite being a missense mutation.

Mutations in δ-sarcoglycan are the least common overall but are found commonly in Brazil, where the disorder was originally described. A single nucleotide deletion, nonsense mutations, and missense mutations have all been reported with rather severe phenotypes. Dilated cardiomyopathy has been seen in some families with heterozygous mutations in the δ-sarcoglycan gene, with or without skeletal muscle weakness. It has been hypothesized that these mutations may act in a dominant-negative way on the sarcoglycan complex as a whole, interfering with its function in cardiomyocytes.

Most milder sarcoglycanopathies are related to α-sarcoglycan mutations, including almost asymptomatic patients with high CK levels and lordosis only. β- and γ-sarcoglycan mutations have a higher proportion of severe early childhood cases though significant intrafamilial variability can be seen. δ-Sarcoglycan mutations are generally more severe.

Clinical Features

Clinical features of the four genetically distinct sarcoglycanopathies overlap significantly, with little difference among the different types. They predominantly affect young children with a median age of onset around 6 to 8 years with a broad range from even younger onset to adult onset disease or almost asymptomatic mutation carriers. Early motor milestones are usually normal, but there may be mild delay or toe walking in some children. Some children are slower than their peers in physical activities. (See Case Example 34.1 .)

Case Example 34.1
Sarcoglycanopathy

Two siblings were evaluated for weakness and elevated CK. In the older sister, now 9.5 years old, an elevated CK was incidentally noted during blood work for gastroenteritis at the age of 7. She had a normal developmental history; she walked at age 12 months and was able to run. There was some reported fatigability but no other symptoms of muscle disease. Her CK levels were persistently elevated. On examination, she had normal eye movements and facial strength, with a minimal lumbar lordosis and mild winging of the scapulae. No contractures were present. Formal strength testing identified very mild weakness of neck flexion and the proximal upper and lower extremities (Medical Research Council [MRC] grade 4 to 4+/5), and quadriceps greater than hamstring weakness. She arose from the floor slowly, but without a Gowers’ sign.

Her brother, now 7 years of age, had delayed early motor milestones, sitting without support at 12 months, and walking independently at 22 months of age. His CK was also persistently elevated. He has always had difficulty in physically keeping up with his peers. He had to roll onto one side to arise from the floor. There was no reported muscle pain, cramping, or discoloration of the urine. The family history was unremarkable; there was no parental consanguinity.

His physical examination showed lumbar lordosis and mild scapular winging, without any contractures. Cranial nerve function is also normal. There was marked neck flexor weakness and proximal upper extremity weakness (MRC grade 4/5, triceps more affected than biceps). There was no facial weakness. In the lower extremities, the proximal muscles were somewhat weaker, in the 4- to 4/5 range, with hip abduction greater than adduction weakness and knee flexion greater than extension. He arose from the floor by rolling to his side and using a modified Gowers’ maneuver. He ran slowly.

Muscle biopsy in the younger brother showed dystrophic muscle with normal dystrophin immunoreactivity and complete absence of immunoreactivity for all four sarcoglycan proteins. Genetic testing showed two missense compound heterozygous mutations in the β-sarcoglycan gene ( Figure 34.2 ).

Time course and distribution of motor symptoms

The first symptoms generally relate to pelvic muscle weakness, evidenced by a waddling gait, which limits activities such as running, getting up from the floor, or climbing stairs. Primary toe walking may be present in some children. Muscle cramps, pain, and exercise intolerance with or without myoglobinuria can also occur, the so-called “pseudometabolic presentation.” The distribution of weakness is reminiscent of dystrophinopathies: the glutei and adductors are more involved than the quadriceps, sartorius, and gracilis. However, unlike dystrophinopathies, anterior and posterior compartments of the thigh may be equally affected. Shoulder girdle weakness follows. The deltoid, infraspinatus, and biceps muscles are involved early in the disease. Scapular weakness tends to be more pronounced compared to dystrophinopathies ( Figure 34.2 ). Facial and extraocular muscles are spared. Late in the disease, distal muscles may be involved, starting in the anterior tibial compartment. Very mild facial involvement with a “transverse smile” may also be seen. In later stages—and similar to DMD—neck flexor weakness may occur. The weakness is quite rapidly progressive, with loss of strength towards the end of the first decade similar to DMD in the early onset cases, although there is more clinical variability compared to DMD. Loss of independent ambulation may occur around 12 to 16 years of age, although there again is considerable variability. CK levels are elevated 10- to 100-fold early in the course of the disease, but tend to decrease as weakness progresses.

Figure 34.2, Two patients with γ-sarcoglycanopathy (LGMD 2C). ( A ) In the 9-year-old girl, note pronounced lordosis and calf hypertrophy. ( B ) In the 11-year-old boy, note prominent scapular winging and hypertrophy of the triceps.

Cardiac features

Cardiac involvement clearly occurs in sarcoglycanopathies, though symptomatic dilated cardiomyopathy is only seen in a minority of patients. In subjects with cardiomyopathy, however, cardiac failure or sudden cardiac death may occur and cardiac transplantation may become necessary. Dilated cardiomyopathy may be more common in γ- and δ-sarcoglycanopathies but can be seen in all sarcoglycanopathies. Subclinical cardiac involvement is more frequently seen on electrocardiography and echocardiography.

The pathogenesis of cardiomyopathy in sarcoglycanopathies is complex. Animal studies suggest that, in addition to abnormalities of the cardiomyocytes themselves, it may be partially related to smooth muscle dysfunction due to the disruption of the sarcoglycan complex in coronary arteries. This finding may have implications for therapy. For example, calcium channel blockers favorably influence development of cardiomyopathy in δ-sarcoglycan deficient mice. On the other hand, some δ-sarcoglycan mutations can cause a dilated cardiomyopathy without skeletal muscle disease. In these patients, no evidence of coronary pathology is found. Carriers of δ-sarcoglycan mutations may develop late onset cardiac disease and should be monitored carefully, similarly to carriers of dystrophin mutations.

Pulmonary features

Symptomatic respiratory failure is not an early feature of sarcoglycanopathies. However, similarly to DMD, some patients with severe early onset muscle weakness develop severe restrictive lung disease once nonambulant. Mild to moderate restrictive lung disease, on the other hand, affects the majority of patients. Patients with α- or γ-sarcoglycanopathy may have more severe respiratory disease, suggesting a specific role for the different subtypes of sarcoglycans in different skeletal muscles.

Contractures and other signs and symptoms

Other signs in some LGMDs include calf hypertrophy and macroglossia. Achilles tendon shortening and lumbar lordosis may occur early in the course, so toe walking can be an early manifestation of the condition. Later, as the disease progresses, more contractures involving the hip flexors, lateral tractus, and knee flexors may develop. Progressive scoliosis may worsen respiratory compromise later in the disease. Unlike DMD, sarcoglycanopathies do not cause intellectual impairment.

Diagnosis

Sarcoglycanopathies can be suspected based on clinical grounds, in particular in a young patient with muscular dystrophy of Duchenne-like severity. The probability of an autosomal recessive LGMD in boys with a Duchenne-like phenotype is 6% to 8%. However, this probability obviously increases if the patient is a girl, or a boy with negative genetic studies of the dystrophin gene.

Definitive histological diagnosis requires examination of the muscle biopsy specimen, including immunohistochemical stains with antibodies against sarcoglycans and dystrophin. Histology usually shows marked degeneration and regeneration and severely dystrophic muscle. Dystrophin immunoreactivity is expected to be normal, though it can be reduced similarly to BMD or female carriers of dystrophin mutation. Western blot analysis of muscle usually shows dystrophin with a normal molecular weight and quantities within 10% of normal.

The pattern of in situ sarcoglycan immunoreactivity in sarcoglycanopathies is rather complex. The entire sarcoglycan complex tends to be affected as a unit, but in some cases the pattern of immunoreactivity of some components may appear more normal. For example, in α- and γ-sarcoglycanopathy, immunoreactivity of mutated proteins is reduced while all others may be preserved or only mildly affected. In contrast, in β- and δ-sarcoglycanopathies, the entire complex is severely reduced or completely absent. Thus, these patterns can be diagnostically helpful ( Figure 34.3 ).

Figure 34.3, Sarcoglycan immunohistochemistry. ( A ) α-Sarcoglycanopathy; note prominent reduction of α-sarcoglycan with preservation of the other sarcoglycans. ( B ) β-Sarcoglycanopathy; note complete loss of membrane location for all four sarcoglycans.

Residual expression of α-sarcoglycan in some cases of missense mutations may correlate with milder clinical phenotypes, but this is not always true. For example, even complete absence of the protein has been reported with mild phenotypes in γ-sarcoglycanopathy.

Nevertheless, immunohistochemical stains can guide molecular genetic testing for the absent proteins in question in a stepwise manner.

Treatment

No specific therapies are available for sarcoglycanopathies, but unlike dystrophinopathies, sarcoglycanopathies are more amenable to gene therapy owing to the fact that cDNA for sarcoglycans are small enough to be suitable for package in viral vectors and delivery. Feasibility of local delivery of adeno-associated virus containing the α-sarcoglycan gene, with long-lasting expression of the wild-type gene without adverse effects, has been shown. Vascular delivery of the vector with systemic delivery remains an area of active investigation. Similarly, a phase I trial of adeno-associated virus γ-sarcoglycan gene therapy was recently conducted with promising proof of concept, though its widespread clinical use awaits larger studies and longer follow-up.

Anecdotal reports advocate the use of steroids in sarcoglycanopathies similar to that in DMD. However, no controlled studies have examined these effects systematically to date. Nifedipine was used in an animal model of δ-sarcoglycan deficient mice, and showed a positive effect on the course of cardiomyopathy attributed to coronary smooth muscle pathology, but the use of such agents in humans is not yet reported. Principles of respiratory and orthopedic management are similar to those for DMD (see Chapter 31, Chapter 44, Chapter 52, Chapter 53 ).

LGMD 2I (Fukutin-related Protein Mutation)

Fukutin-related protein ( FKRP ) belongs to the growing list of genes underlying the group of α-dystroglycanopathies, characterized by abnormal O-mannosyl glycosylation of α-dystroglycan, which more typically are associated with forms of congenital muscular dystrophy (CMD, discussed in Chapter 29 ). Mutations in FKRP cause an extremely wide spectrum of phenotypes ranging from severe Walker-Warburg syndrome, transitional phenotypes of CMD with variable central nervous system involvement or normal brain imaging, to less severe LGMDs resembling the dystrophinopathies, which are referred to as LGMD 2I.

Pathophysiology and Genetics

This form, designated as LGMD 2I, was first identified and mapped in Tunisia to chromosome 19q13.3. FKRP was later identified based on its homology to fukutin, the protein deficient in Fukuyama congenital muscular dystrophy. It is thought to be involved in glycosylation of α-dystroglycan, in particular of its LARGE glycol-epitope, which is variably reduced in muscle by immunohistochemistry and Western blot in patients with LGMD 2I. These findings are also replicated in the mouse model of this disease.

The mutations identified so far include missense as well as null mutations. Most mutations are contained in exon 4; as a result, mutation analysis is not complicated. A missense mutation, Leu276Ile , is seen in almost all LGMD patients and results in a relatively milder phenotype in the homozygous state, compared to the compound heterozygous state with other, more severe mutations.

Clinical Features

The LGMD phenotype of FKRP mutations can present as a DMD phenocopy, with early loss of ambulation (before 10 years of age in some cases). The pattern of muscle weakness is very similar to DMD, showing a pronounced predilection for axial muscles, neck flexors, and proximal limb muscles with a prominent lordosis. In some patients, shoulder girdle muscles may be weaker than those of the pelvic girdle, with atrophy of the deltoid and pectoralis muscles. There can be tongue, calf, and brachioradialis hypertrophy. The hamstrings are generally more involved than the quadriceps. Mild facial weakness can also be seen. Scapular winging is uncommon. There is significant variability; patients homozygous for Leu276Ile may have a milder phenotype more similar to BMD, and there are adult-onset forms of the disorder. CK levels are high, 10 to 30 times the upper limit of normal.

Clinically significant dilated cardiomyopathy can occur even before loss of ambulation, while limb girdle weakness may still be relatively mild, and in occasional patients can be rapidly progressive. Respiratory failure necessitating nocturnal ventilatory support, on the other hand, typically manifests after loss of ambulation and should be evaluated and treated appropriately.

Diagnosis

LGMD 2I may be suspected on clinical grounds, based on features such as the peculiar hypertrophy of brachioradialis and tongue in some patients. Muscle biopsy immunohistochemical analysis usually shows prominently reduced α-dystroglycans and a mild reduction of laminin α2. While these are not specific, they can be helpful in prompting genetic analysis of FKRP gene in the right clinical setting.

Treatment

No specific treatments are available at this time. Similar to other muscular dystrophies causing cardiomyopathy and respiratory failure, the recognition, evaluation, and treatment of dilated cardiomyopathy and potential need for nocturnal ventilatory support is of utmost importance.

Other α-Dystroglycanopathies

Numerous other gene mutations may result in hypoglycosylation of α-dystroglycan with an LGMD phenotype. These include protein-O-mannosyl transferase 1 and 2 ( POMT1 and POMT2 ), causing LGMD 2K and LGMD 2N, respectively; protein-O-mannose 1,2-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase 1 (POMGnT1) , causing LGMD 2O; fukutin , causing LGMD 2M; and DAG1 , causing LGMD 2P . These conditions are also phenotypically heterogeneous.

Fukutin mutations, typically associated with a CMD, have also been reported to cause a mild LGMD without intellectual disability. A mutation in POMGnT1 has also been reported to cause a mild LGMD phenotype with onset at 12 years of age and normal intellect. In contrast, LGMD phenotypes associated with POMT1 and POMT2 mutations are almost always accompanied by intellectual disability or central nervous system dysfunction. In these patients, muscle weakness remains mild and most are ambulatory into adulthood. Primary mutations in LARGE have not been associated with a LGMD phenotype, but a patient with LGMD, intellectual disability, and a mutation in DAG1 was described. DAG1 encodes dystroglycan, which interacts with and is glycosylated by LARGE. Similar to the other secondary dystroglycanopathies discussed above, this mutation leads to aberrant posttranslational glycosylation, underscoring the importance of this process in normal muscle membrane function.

Mutations in the isoprenoid synthase domain containing (ISPD) gene and GDP-mannose pyrophosphorylase B ( GMPPB) , both of which are involved in glycosylation of α-dystroglycan, have recently been identified in patients with a LGMD phenotype. ISPD mutations, previously shown to cause WWS and CMD phenotypes, can cause a mild LGMD pattern of weakness. In addition to the expected cardiac and pulmonary involvement similar to other dystroglycanopathies, these patients may also have infratentorial CNS involvement with cerebellar atrophy and/or oculomotor apraxia. GMPPB mutations also cause a wide range of abnormalities including LGMD. Patients may also have epilepsy, cataracts, and developmental abnormalities of the posterior fossa structures.

Calpainopathy (LGMD 2A)

Background and Epidemiology

Calpainopathy, or LGMD 2A, one of the most common LGMDs, was the first autosomal recessive LGMD localized by linkage analysis. The first clinical description of this juvenile onset muscular dystrophy can be attributed to Wilhelm Erb in 1880s. Genetic linkage analysis in families of the Reunion Island off the coast of Africa identified the locus on chromosome 15q15. LGMD 2A is likely the most common juvenile onset form of LGMD and may account for 40% to 50% of all cases of LGMD.

Pathophysiology, Genetics, and Mutations

CAPN3 , the gene mutated in LGMD 2A, encodes calpain-3, a calcium-activated protease that localizes to the cytoplasm and nuclei of the cells. It has a nuclear localization signal where it is thought to help in processing of transcription factors relevant to muscle. It has been thought to stabilize NF-kB, which activates anti-apoptotic genes, and inhibit its degradation. Presence of apoptotic cell death in muscle cells of patients with calpainopathy further supports this mechanism. In addition, calpain-3 interacts with titin, a large sarcomeric protein. Additional studies propose a role for calpain-3 in membrane repair via its interactions with the dysferlin complex.

A large number of mutations in calpain-3 have been identified. These include (more commonly) missense mutations and (less commonly) large deletions and truncations. In general, truncating mutations tend to be associated with more severe phenotypes, though there are no strong genotype/phenotype correlations as a whole. There are no specific hotspots for mutations in the gene.

Clinical Features

Calpainopathy has a characteristic clinical phenotype, although atypical presentations do occur. The age of onset is slightly later than sarcoglycanopathies, between 8 and 15 years of age (range 2 to 40 years). Early milestones are generally normal, but some children are reported to be weaker than peers in physical activities. Primary toe walking and delayed walking are also reported in some individuals. Exercise-induced myalgias or muscle stiffness may predate muscle weakness. See Case Example 34.2 .

Case Example 34.2

A 14-year-old boy presented with proximal weakness. He was born after an uncomplicated pregnancy and delivery with normal early motor development. Problems were first noted at 12 years of age with difficulty in skiing, jumping, and climbing stairs. His mother also had noted increased tendency to toe-walk and decreased muscle mass in the legs and around the shoulders. Over the next 1.5 years, he developed increasing difficulty getting up from the floor and lifting heavy objects, without muscle cramping or myalgias. The family history was unremarkable and there was no parental consanguinity.

On examination, his cranial nerves were normal without facial weakness or external ophthalmoplegia. There was pronounced atrophy of the proximal upper and lower extremities, with scapular winging. On formal strength testing, there was weakness of the periscapular muscles and proximal upper extremity muscles (biceps greater than triceps) with normal distal strength. In the lower extremities, the hip flexors and glutei were MRC grade 2 to 3/5; the quadriceps and hip abductors were clearly stronger than hamstrings and hip adductors. There was a mild lumbar lordosis and prominent Achilles contractures.

The CK was elevated, at 2584 U/L. A muscle biopsy showed dystrophic muscle with normal immunoreactivity for dystrophin, sarcoglycans, and dysferlin. The Western blot analysis showed a complete absence of calpain-3. Genetic analysis showed two compound heterozygous missense mutations in the CAPN3 gene.

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