Diffuse Pancreatic Disease


General Considerations

Diffuse involvement of the pancreas can occur with various inflammatory, infective, infiltrative, or neoplastic disorders. Any pathologic process that involves the pancreas focally also can cause diffuse involvement ( Box 51-1 ). More common causes of diffuse pancreatic involvement (e.g., pancreatitis) have been discussed previously. This chapter discusses infrequent causes and differential features.

Box 51-1
Diffuse Pancreatic Diseases

Inflammation

  • Acute pancreatitis

  • Chronic pancreatitis

    • Chronic calcifying pancreatitis

    • Chronic obstructive pancreatitis

    • Autoimmune pancreatitis

Infiltration

  • Cystic fibrosis

  • Fatty replacement of pancreas

  • Amyloidosis

  • Hemochromatosis

Infection

  • Tuberculosis

  • Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

Neoplasm

  • Lymphoma

  • Leukemia

  • Carcinoma

  • Metastases

Miscellaneous

  • Nesidioblastosis (persistent hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia of infancy, congenital hyperinsulinism)

  • Von Hippel-Lindau disease

Imaging

Imaging can demonstrate the pattern and extent of pancreatic involvement and other ancillary features, which can suggest and facilitate diagnosis. Although imaging features can overlap, differentiation becomes critical from the management perspective. Please refer to Figure 51-1 for an imaging algorithm of diffuse pancreatic diseases.

Figure 51-1, Imaging pattern–based algorithm for diffuse pancreatic diseases. AIDS, Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome; CT, computed tomography; PD, pancreatic duct; US, ultrasonography.

Differential Diagnosis

Because of overlapping imaging features, clinical and laboratory parameters are often required to elucidate and reinforce the diagnosis. Imaging can guide invasive techniques (biopsy, fine-needle aspiration) in doubtful cases, aid in further substantiation of diagnosis, and guide in treatment planning. Imaging also plays an important role in screening and posttherapy follow-up to demonstrate resolution, recovery, or recurrence. Please refer to Table 51-1 and Figures 51-2 to 51-5 .

TABLE 51-1
Differential Features of Diffuse Pancreatic Diseases
Disease Process Clinical Data Specific Laboratory Tests IMAGING Imaging Mimics
Radiography Ultrasonography CT MR ERCP
Acute pancreatitis
(see Figure 51-2 )
Acute presentation ± history of gallstones and/or alcoholism Serum lipase and amylase Small bowel ileus Enlarged, hypoechoic Enlarged, hypodense
Peripancreatic fat stranding and fluid collection
Enlarged, T1-weighted hypointense, T2-weighted hyperintense Lymphoma
Chronic calcifying pancreatitis
(see Figure 51-3 )
Chronic presentation
History of gallstones, alcohol, ± exocrine and endocrine insufficiency
Prevertebral calcification Small or atrophic, irregular ductal dilatation, ± calcification Small or atrophic, irregular ductal dilatation, ± calcification Small or atrophic, MRCP: PD irregularity, beading, dilatation PD beading, irregular dilatation Pancreatic CA when associated with focal mass-like lesion
Chronic obstructive pancreatitis
(see Figure 51-4 )
Chronic presentation, history of CA or IPMN CA: Hypoechoic lesion, small or atrophic pancreas, upstream PD dilatation and irregularity, ± calcification
MD IPMN: Diffuse PD dilatation
CA: Hypodense on parenchymal phase of IV contrast, upstream PD dilatation, ± calcification, ± invasion and metastasis
MD IPMN: Diffuse PD dilatation ± bulging papilla
CA: Hypointense on parenchymal phase of IV contrast, upstream PD dilatation, ± invasion and metastasis
MD IPMN: Diffuse PD dilatation ± bulging major papilla
Bulging papilla with MD IPMN, PD dilated Mass-like lesion of chronic pancreatitis
Autoimmune pancreatitis
(see Figure 51-5 )
Common in males
Nonspecific symptoms related to pancreatic involvement
Serum IgG4 Enlarged, hypoechoic Enlarged, sausage shaped, peripancreatic halo, peripancreatic stranding, PD attenuated or irregular, ± CBD involvement, focal mass-like swelling T1 hypointense, T2 hyperintense, sausage shaped, peripancreatic halo, peripancreatic stranding, PD attenuated or irregular, ± CBD involvement, focal mass-like swelling PD attenuated or irregular Acute pancreatitis, pancreatic CA when associated focal mass-like swelling
Tuberculosis
(see Figure 51-13 )
Immigrants, immunocompromised HIV patients
Constitutional symptoms, symptoms related to pancreas or other organ system involvement
Calcification in chronic or treated cases Enlarged, hypoechoic, heterogeneity as a result of abscess/calcification Enlarged, hypodense, heterogeneity as a result of abscess/ calcification/ necrosis, heterogeneous enhancement, peripancreatic edema, peripancreatic, mesenteric, periportal LN, fistulas Enlarged
T1 hypointense
T2 hyperintense, heterogeneous enhancement
PD normal, compressed, displaced or stenosed Carcinoma, lymphoma, AIDS
AIDS
(see Figure 51-14 )
High-risk behavior, IVDA Enlarged, hypoechoic Enlarged, hypodense, hemorrhagic necrosis with herpes simplex Enlarged
T1 hypointense
T2 hyperintense, heterogeneous enhancement
Tuberculosis, carcinoma, lymphoma
Lymphoma
(see Figure 51-15 )
Systemic symptoms, jaundice less common Calcification in treated cases Enlarged, hypoechoic, mesenteric and retroperitoneal LN Enlarged, hypodense, peripancreatic infiltration, mild homogeneous enhancement, PD dilatation not a feature, mesenteric and retroperitoneal LN extending below renal vein, invasion of other organs, engulfment of vessels
Valuable for staging
Enlarged, T1 hypointense, T2 hyperintense, mild homogeneous enhancement, PD dilatation not a feature, mesenteric and retroperitoneal LN extending below renal vein, invasion of other organs, engulfment of vessels PD normal, displaced, narrowed Tuberculosis, carcinoma, leukemia, AIDS
Leukemia Systemic symptoms, jaundice not a feature Enlarged, hypoechoic, LN, other organ system involvement Enlarged, hypodense, mild enhancement, LN, other organ system involvement Enlarged, T1 hypointense, T2 hyperintense, LN, other organ system involvement Lymphoma
Carcinoma
Tuberculosis
AIDS
Carcinoma
(see Figure 51-16 )
Middle–elderly age
Systemic symptoms, painless jaundice
CA 19-9 for follow-up Enlarged, hypoechoic, LN, vascular invasion, metastases Enlarged, hypodense, heterogeneity as a result of necrosis/calcification, LN, vascular encasement/invasion, metastases Enlarged, T1 hypointense, T2 hyperintense, heterogeneity as a result of necrosis/calcification, LN, vascular encasement/invasion, metastases Irregularity or narrowing Lymphoma, tuberculosis, AIDS
Metastases Known primary illness, occasionally pancreatic metastases—first sign
Systemic and local symptoms
Enlarged, hypoechoic, LN, involvement of other organs Enlarged, hypodense, occasionally necrosis, LN, involvement of other organs Enlarged, T1 hypointense, T2 hyperintense, LN, involvement of other organs Irregularity or narrowing Lymphoma, carcinoma, tuberculosis
Cystic fibrosis
(see Figures 51-6 to 51-10 )
AR, whites, family history, exocrine and endocrine dysfunction Sweat chloride test Homogeneously or heterogeneously hyperechoic, multiple hypoechoic cysts Size: Normal or atrophic, hypodense as a result of fat/fibrosis, ± calcification, low-attenuation cystic lesions without solid component Fatty: T1 and T2 hyperintensity
Fibrosis: T1 and T2 hypointensity
Cysts: T1 hypointensity, T2 hyperintensity
Fatty replacement, VHL
Fatty replacement
(see Figure 51-11 )
Advanced age, DM, metabolic syndrome, Cushing's, long-term use of corticosteroids, chronic pancreatitis Echogenic Hypodense, prominent lobulations T1 and T2 hyperintense, prominent lobulations Cystic fibrosis
Amyloidosis Chronic or hematologic illness Hypoechoic Hypodense T1 hypointense and hyperintense, T2 hyperintense Fatty replacement
Hemochromatosis
(see Figure 51-12 )
AD, family history, systemic manifestations, endocrine or exocrine pancreatic dysfunction Serum iron, TIBC, transferrin saturation Normal-appearing pancreas Hyperdense pancreas and peripancreatic LN T2 hypointense pancreas and liver
Nesidioblastosis (congenital hyperinsulinism of infancy) Recurrent hypoglycemia in infancy Insulin and C peptide Enlarged, hypoechoic Enlarged, hypodense T1 hypointense, T2 hyperintense
VHL
(see Figures 51-17 and 51-18 )
Family history, CNS manifestations, endocrine or exocrine pancreatic dysfunction with severe involvement Genetic testing Multiple hypoechoic cysts, sometimes solid appearance as a result of multiple interfaces, ± SCA Multiple hypodense cysts with thin wall, ± calcification throughout pancreas ± SCA Multiple cysts, T1 hypointense, T2 hyperintense ± SCA Cystic fibrosis
—, Not available or not relevant; AD, autosomal dominant; AR, autosomal recessive; AIDS, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome; CA, carcinoma; CBD, common bile duct; CNS, central nervous system; CT, computed tomography; DM, diabetes mellitus; ERCP, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography;
HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; IgG4, immunoglobulin G4; IPMN, intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm; IV, intravenous; IVDA, intravenous drug abuse; LN, lymph nodes (lymphadenopathy); MD, main duct; MR, magnetic resonance; MRCP, magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography; PD, pancreatic duct; SCA, serous cystadenoma; TIBC, total iron-binding capacity; VHL, von Hippel-Lindau disease.

Figure 51-2, Acute pancreatitis. Axial computed tomography image reveals a swollen, edematous head and body of pancreas (arrows) with peripancreatic fat stranding (long black arrow at lower left) and fluid collection (arrowheads).

Figure 51-3, Chronic calcifying pancreatitis. A, Axial computed tomography image shows a small and atrophic pancreas. The pancreatic duct visualized in the region of the body is dilated with an intraductal calcification (arrow). B, Axial two-dimensional magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography image in a different patient reveals a beaded irregular pancreatic duct (arrows).

Figure 51-4, Chronic obstructive pancreatitis. Curved reformatted images in two different patients. A, A hypodense mass (carcinoma) (arrowheads) is seen in the head and uncinate process of the pancreas with abrupt cutoff of the pancreatic duct (arrow) and upstream dilatation. The pancreatic parenchyma reveals mild atrophy. B, Diffuse dilatation of the pancreatic duct (arrows) with mild parenchymal atrophy without any evident mass lesion in this case of main duct intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm.

Figure 51-5, Autoimmune pancreatitis. Axial computed tomography image reveals a swollen pancreas with a peripancreatic hypodensity (halo) (arrowheads), minimal peripancreatic stranding (asterisk), irregularity of the pancreatic duct (vertical black arrow), and retraction of the pancreatic tail (white arrow).

Treatment

Medical management depends on the underlying disease process involving the pancreas and is detailed in the discussion of individual diseases presented in this chapter. Surgical management is generally not recommended for diffuse pancreatic disorders, but palliative measures may be required in some cases.

What the Referring Physician Needs to Know
General Considerations

  • Overlapping imaging features of diffuse pancreatic disease are seen.

  • Consideration of clinical, laboratory, and imaging findings are vital for narrowing the differential diagnosis and may help avoid surgery for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in medically treatable cases.

  • Histologic diagnosis is crucial before appropriate medical or surgical therapy is instituted.

  • Confirmation of diagnosis can be done by pathologic evaluation of tissue obtained from the pancreatic lesion or other involved organs.

Infiltrative Disorders

Cystic Fibrosis

Etiology

Cystic fibrosis is a life-threatening disorder caused by mutation in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene (CFTR) on chromosome 7.

Prevalence and Epidemiology

Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal recessive disorder that is more prevalent in whites, with an incidence of approximately 1 in 2500 (in this population).

Clinical Presentation

Although predominantly characterized by chronic obstructive lung disease and pancreatic insufficiency, cystic fibrosis is a multiorgan disease affecting the liver, gallbladder, bile ducts, intestines, and the reproductive tract. The clinical and imaging findings vary with severity and duration of disease process in all age groups. Nearly 85% to 90% of patients will present with clinical signs within 1 year of life. Significant loss of pancreatic exocrine cells must be present before development of typical clinical symptoms of insufficiency such as steatorrhea, fat intolerance, failure to thrive, bloating, flatulence, and abdominal pain. Pancreatic function may be preserved in 10% to 15% of patients, and when residual exocrine function is present, patients may present with acute pancreatitis. Endocrine dysfunction is less commonly encountered.

Pathophysiology

The defective transmembrane ion transport in cystic fibrosis leads to accumulation of thick, viscous pancreatic secretions in the pancreatic ducts, leading to ductal ectasia and acinar atrophy. Inflammatory reaction, progressive fatty replacement, fibrosis, and calcification result, with extensive atrophic change occurring in severe long-standing disease. Cyst formation can occur secondary to inspissated secretions obstructing the small pancreatic ducts.

Imaging

The patterns of pancreatic involvement include (1) partial fibrofatty replacement of the pancreas, (2) complete fibrofatty replacement with enlargement of pancreas (lipomatous pseudohypertrophy), (3) pancreatic atrophy without evidence of fatty replacement, (4) diffuse pancreatic fibrosis, and (5) pancreatic cystosis. In pancreatic cystosis, cysts are usually multiloculated with individual cysts measuring 0.5 to 12 cm in diameter. Complete fatty replacement of the pancreas is commonly seen, with fat replacement maintaining the shape of the pancreas. This morphologic finding may be evident in older patients and represents late stage of disease, but it also can be seen earlier with severe involvement.

Radiography.

Calcifications may be seen in the late stage of the disease.

Ultrasonography.

On ultrasonography, the involved pancreas reveals homogeneously or heterogeneously increased echogenicity ( Figure 51-6, A ). The pancreas may be normal or small in size, and the typical fine lobular echotexture of the pancreas is gradually lost. Pancreatic cystosis is seen as multiple, thin-walled, anechoic, multiloculated cysts scattered throughout the pancreas with interspersed hyperechoic pancreatic parenchyma (see Figure 51-6, B ). Ultrasonography is not sensitive for detecting and estimating the extent of pancreatic involvement.

Figure 51-6, Cystic fibrosis. Ultrasound images reveal hyperechoic pancreatic parenchyma ( arrows, A ) and diffuse cystosis of the pancreas with interspersed echogenic pancreatic parenchyma ( arrow, B ).

Computed Tomography.

Fatty replacement of the pancreas ( Figure 51-7 ) and fibrosis appears hypodense on computed tomography (CT); measurement of Hounsfield units will differentiate the two processes. A small atrophic pancreas can be seen ( Figure 51-8 ). Calcification, when present, is better appreciated on CT. The cystic lesions appear as well-defined low-attenuation structures without any solid portions or excrescences ( Figure 51-9 ).

Figure 51-7, Cystic fibrosis. Axial computed tomography images demonstrate fatty changes in the pancreas with interspersed residual pancreatic parenchyma ( arrows, A ) and complete replacement of pancreas by fat ( arrows, B ).

Figure 51-8, Cystic fibrosis. Axial computed tomography image reveals atrophy of the pancreas with a few small cystic lesions seen in the proximal body (arrows).

Figure 51-9, Cystic fibrosis. Axial computed tomography images reveal diffuse pancreatic cystosis involving the head, neck, body ( black and white arrows, A ) and tail of the pancreas ( black arrow, B ).

Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Magnetic Resonance Cholangiopancreatography.

Fatty changes reveal hyperintense signal Figure 51-10 ), whereas areas of fibrosis show as hypointense signal on T1- and T2-weighted images. Cysts appear as hypointense on T1-weighted images and hyperintense on T2-weighted images. Although magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is more sensitive in detection of additional small cysts compared to CT or ultrasound, no additional clinically important information is added. Exocrine dysfunction and appearance on MR may not correlate, and a normal-appearing pancreas can be seen in patients with dysfunction. Beading, strictures, poststenotic dilatation, and obstruction of pancreatic duct also may be present and are best characterized on magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP).

Classic Signs
Cystic Fibrosis

  • Fatty replacement

  • Cystic changes

  • Calcifications

  • Fibrosis

  • Atrophy

  • Ductal stenosis and beading

Figure 51-10, Cystic fibrosis. Axial T1-weighted (A) and T2-weighted fat-suppressed (B) magnetic resonance images reveal near-complete fatty replacement of pancreas (arrows), appearing isointense to the retroperitoneal fat.

Differential Diagnosis

With cystic changes, differential diagnosis may include cystic pancreatic neoplasms, polycystic kidney disease, and von Hippel-Lindau syndrome. With diffuse fatty change, lipomatosis may be indistinguishable, although clinical findings of recurrent respiratory infections, age, exocrine and endocrine dysfunction, family history, and positive sweat chloride test can aid in diagnosis.

Treatment

Medical Treatment.

Lifelong pancreatic enzyme replacement and insulin therapy are mainstays of treatment in patients with endocrine or exocrine insufficiency.

Surgical Treatment.

End-stage lung disease is treated with bilateral lung transplantation. Excess primary digestive tract malignancies have been reported, and use of immunosuppressive therapy after transplant and exogenous growth hormone can secondarily trigger pancreatic malignancies in patients with cystic fibrosis requiring surgical management.

What the Referring Physician Needs to Know
Cystic Fibrosis

  • Genetic testing can result in early diagnosis and treatment.

  • Although less common, pancreatitis can occur in those with preserved exocrine function.

  • Asymptomatic patients can be observed with ultrasonography.

  • Exocrine pancreatic dysfunction may not become clinically apparent until 98% to 99% of pancreatic parenchyma is damaged.

  • Pancreatic insufficiency may lead to an earlier pseudomonal colonization of airways.

  • Noninvasive imaging can be useful for quantitative evaluation of morphologic changes in the pancreas and in monitoring the progression of disease, before clinical decline becomes apparent.

Fatty Replacement (Lipomatosis) of Pancreas

Etiology

Fatty replacement of the pancreas is commonly seen with obesity and aging. Metabolic syndrome, characterized by obesity, dyslipidemia, glucose intolerance, hypertension, and proinflammatory or prothrombotic state, is thought to have high association with fatty replacement. Other associated conditions include Cushing's syndrome, adult-onset diabetes mellitus, chronic pancreatitis, hereditary pancreatitis, alcoholic hepatitis, malnutrition, Shwachman-Diamond syndrome, and long-term use of corticosteroids.

Clinical Presentation

Fatty replacement does not cause clinical symptoms. Clinical presentation is according to the primary disease process.

Pathology

Mature adipocytes and bands of fibrous tissue replace the pancreatic tissue with sparing of acini and islets of Langerhans.

Imaging

Ultrasonography.

The pancreatic gland appears echogenic on ultrasound examination.

Computed Tomography.

Uniform or patchy fatty replacement can be readily identified on CT, which reveals separation of pancreatic parenchyma with prominence of lobulations interspersed with fat. With patchy involvement, the spared regions can be mistaken as pseudotumors. Associated atrophy of the pancreas may be seen to a variable degree, particularly in elderly individuals ( Figure 51-11 ). Massive enlargement of the pancreas due to fatty replacement is known as lipomatous pseudohypertrophy.

Figure 51-11, Fatty replacement of pancreas. A and B, Axial computed tomography images in two different elderly patients aged 75 and 84 years, respectively, show variable degree of fatty replacement with prominent pancreatic lobulations and mild atrophy.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging.

Fatty replacement of the gland appears hyperintense on T1- and T2-weighted imaging and will suppress on fat-saturated sequences. MRI may be helpful in distinguishing patchy fatty infiltration and pseudotumor appearance of the residual normal pancreas, whereas true pancreatic adenocarcinoma will rarely demonstrate presence of fat.

Classic Signs
Fatty Replacement (Lipomatosis) of Pancreas

  • Fatty replacement

  • Prominent lobules

Differential Diagnosis

Clinical diagnosis gives an insight to the cause of fatty replacement. In the presence of clinical diagnosis and imaging findings, no other diagnostic studies are required.

Treatment

No medical treatment is required or available. Sometimes lipomatous pseudohypertrophy can be mistaken as pancreatic mass and taken for surgical resection. Fatty replacement is reversible in obesity after weight reduction, in treated Cushing's syndrome, and with discontinuation of corticosteroids.

What the Referring Physician Needs to Know
Fatty Replacement (Lipomatosis) of Pancreas

  • Knowledge of lipomatosis helps recognize this condition and avoids mistaking this benign process from other treatable disorders.

Amyloidosis

Etiology

Amyloidosis is a systemic disorder characterized by abnormal protein folding and extracellular deposition of insoluble fibrillar proteins. Three forms have been defined, with the primary form representing deposition of light-chain immunoglobulins secondary to plasma cell dyscrasias; the secondary form arising as a result of chronic diseases such as rheumatoid, sarcoid, or diabetes; and the familial form representing the autosomal dominant form of the disease with formation of abnormal proteins.

Clinical Presentation

Patients can present with exocrine or endocrine dysfunction or abdominal pain, in addition to the signs and symptoms of associated systemic illness.

Pathology

The pancreas can be involved in primary amyloidosis or, more commonly, as a part of amyloidosis secondary to chronic systemic disease processes. Affinity to Congo red with apple green birefringence under polarized light microscopy are pathognomonic for all amyloidosis.

Imaging

Although literature on characteristic imaging findings on pancreatic amyloidosis is scarce, pancreatic involvement can be focal or diffuse.

Ultrasonography.

The diffusely involved gland appears enlarged and hypoechoic on ultrasound. Often, there is increased affinity to deposition of calcium and punctate calcifications can be seen.

Computed Tomography.

The diffusely involved gland appears enlarged and hypodense on CT. Similarly, punctate calcifications can be seen.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging.

The involved gland appears hypointense or hyperintense on T1-weighted imaging and hyperintense on T2-weighted imaging. Diffuse heterogeneous enhancement may be seen.

Differential Diagnosis

Differential diagnosis for diffuse involvement of the pancreas includes autoimmune pancreatitis, lymphoma, and acute pancreatitis. Involvement of other organ systems can indicate the diagnosis in secondary amyloidosis. Histopathologic evaluation with Congo red and immunostaining of tissue is required for differentiation from other clinical entities.

Treatment

Medical management involves treatment of the systemic disease process in secondary forms of amyloidosis.

What the Referring Physician Needs to Know
Amyloidosis

  • Although amyloidosis is a rare cause of diffuse pancreatic involvement, this disease should be considered when chronic or hematologic illnesses coexist.

Hemochromatosis

Etiology

Hemochromatosis is a disorder of excessive iron accumulation.

Prevalence and Epidemiology

Hereditary hemochromatosis is prevalent in Northern European descent and is less common in blacks, Hispanics, and Asian-Americans. The disease is five times more common in men, and they usually experience symptoms at an earlier age. Because women lose iron with menstruation and pregnancy, they tend to store less iron than men. After menopause or hysterectomy, the risk for women is the same as that for men.

Clinical Presentation

Pancreatic involvement manifests as abdominal pain, in addition to the other systemic manifestations of hemochromatosis owing to involvement of heart, skin, liver, thyroid, joints, and other organ systems. Patients will typically present with abdominal pain, fatigue, joint pain, and loss of libido, among other symptoms related to iron deposition in multiple organs.

Pathophysiology

Hemochromatosis can be primary/hereditary or secondary. Hereditary hemochromatosis is an autosomal dominant disorder resulting from excessive absorption of iron; secondary hemochromatosis results from excessive ingestion of iron or from multiple transfusions. Hereditary hemochromatosis is mainly caused by a defect in the HFE gene, which helps regulate the amount of iron absorbed from food. The two common mutations involving the HFE gene are C282Y and H63D . Juvenile and neonatal hemochromatosis, two additional forms, are caused by a mutation in a gene called hemojuvelin.

Imaging

Radiography.

Radiographs have no role in evaluation of pancreatic hemochromatosis. Joint involvement can be separately imaged.

Ultrasonography.

Ultrasonography is noncontributory in most pancreatic cases. Liver involvement may be seen as an altered echotexture or as heterogeneity.

Computed Tomography.

CT characteristically reveals increased density in the pancreas and adjacent peripancreatic lymph nodes, although no correlation has been found between the amount of increased density and pancreatic dysfunction or insufficiency. Unopacified vessels may give a spurious impression of low-density masses in the pancreas, which can be resolved by contrast administration.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging.

Pancreatic involvement is uncommon without cirrhosis. On T2-weighted gradient recalled echo MRI, the liver and pancreas reveal markedly diminished signal intensity compared with that of skeletal muscles ( Figure 51-12 ). Hypointense signal also can be seen on spin echo T2-weighted images, although this sequence is less sensitive. The splenic signal is normal in primary hemochromatosis. On chemical shift in-phase and out-of-phase imaging, reversal of signal drop is seen in comparison to when there is intracytoplasmic fat, with signal drop out seen on in-phase imaging with iron deposition. Quantification of the liver iron content can be performed using T2-weighted gradient recalled echo images. By calculating the ratio of signal intensity of liver to that of fat, mounting iron overload can be serially evaluated.

Classic Signs
Hemochromatosis

  • Hyperdense on CT (pancreas and lymph nodes)

  • Hypointense on T2-weighted gradient recalled echo MRI

Figure 51-12, Hemochromatosis. Axial T1-weighted (A) and T2-weighted fat-suppressed gradient recalled echo (B) magnetic resonance imaging reveals diffusely hypointense pancreas (arrows) and liver, compared with the muscles, secondary to iron deposition. Spleen is shown as normal signal intensity.

Differential Diagnosis

Systemic involvement of the heart, skin, liver, joints, thyroid, and other organ systems supports the imaging diagnosis. Findings of elevated serum iron concentration, total iron-binding capacity, and transferrin saturation values are characteristic. Liver biopsy is the gold standard for diagnosis.

Treatment

Medical Treatment.

Regular phlebotomy is effective in removing excess iron from the body.

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