SPINE MALFORMATION: EMBRYOLOGY AND APPROACH Spine Embryology The formation of the spine occurs from the second to sixth weeks of gestation through: Gastrulation (weeks 2–3): conversion of a bilaminar to trilaminar layer with the middle layer of the mesoderm. Primary…
INTRODUCTION Background Head and neck infections are extremely common in children. Locations of infections include the lymph nodes, salivary glands, aerodigestive tract, orbit, sinuses, and temporal bone. Consequently, an initial approach to head and neck infections and inflammatory conditions includes…
APPROACH TO NECK MASSES BACKGROUND AND APPROACH TO NECK MASSES Neck masses are commonly encountered in children, and a wide range of etiologies is possible such that familiarity with anatomic locations and a diagnostic approach is necessary in order to…
INTRODUCTION Background Within a space of less than a few centimeters, the temporal bone contains highly specialized small anatomic structures that allow for hearing and balance. The temporal bone is composed of five parts (petrous, tympanic, squamosal, mastoid, and zygomatic)…
INTRODUCTION Background Craniofacial malformations have characteristic osseous and soft tissue features, which lead to visible deformity. In addition, these anomalies can lead to loss of normal function of hearing, swallowing, and vision. These malformations frequently involve combinations of craniofacial locations.…
INTRODUCTION Embryology The ventricles arise from the lumen of the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. At approximately the sixth week of gestation, the lateral ventricles arise as extensions from the anterior-superior aspect of the third ventricle and communicate through the foramen…
INTRODUCTION Background Trauma is the most common cause of death and a significant cause of morbidity in children. Both accidental and nonaccidental trauma are common in children. Several anatomic differences in younger children should be highlighted to understand why younger…
INTRODUCTION Phakomatoses are a group of neurocutaneous disorders that involve structures arising from the embryologic ectoderm, resulting in abnormalities of the skin, nervous system, retina, and globe. There are approximately 30 different phakomatoses; however, the main phakomatoses include neurofibromatosis type…
INTRODUCTION Background Epilepsy is a chronic seizure condition in which abnormal excessive or uncoordinated neuronal activity leads to abnormal brain function. About 1% of children in the United States have epilepsy. Approximately 66% to 75% of children with epilepsy will…
INTRODUCTION Background Central nervous system (CNS) tumors are the second most common pediatric cancer diagnosed each year, accounting for approximately 25% of childhood cancers. They are responsible for the second most common cause of cancer deaths in children. Survival has…