Pediatric spinal cord imaging relies heavily on ultrasound (US) in infants under 6 months of age and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) thereafter. Other imaging modalities, such as radiography, computed tomography (CT), and nuclear scintigraphy, have a limited role but may…
Embryology The spinal cord forms in three stages beginning in the third gestational week. The first stage, neurulation, involves progression from neural plate to neural tube. The notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral disks. The second stage, canalization,…
Incidence and Etiology Head trauma and resulting traumatic brain injury (TBI) are among the most common causes of morbidity and mortality in children. Head trauma alone is responsible for 50% of deaths in children ages 1 to 14 years. Approximately…
Overview Epilepsy is a common pediatric neurologic disorder. In North America, the overall incidence of epilepsy is approximately 50/100,000 per year, highest for children below 5 years of age and the elderly. Children are at higher risk for developing epilepsy…
Stroke is a leading cause of disability and death in children. Three distinct time periods can be used to categorize stroke in the pediatric population: fetal (14 weeks of gestation until the onset of labor), perinatal/neonatal (between late third trimester…
Stroke is defined as a neurologic deficit persisting for more than 24 hours and may be caused by cerebral ischemia or intracranial hemorrhage. The annual incidence of stroke in children ranges from 2 to 13 cases per 100,000 patients and…
Overview Brain tumors are the most common solid pediatric tumors and are the leading cause of death in children from solid tumors. The incidence rate of all childhood primary brain and central nervous system (CNS) tumors is estimated to be…
Brain Infections Bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic organisms are all causative factors in central neurologic system (CNS) infection. Brain infection manifests as encephalitis, cerebritis, and meningitis. Encephalitis refers to diffuse infection of the brain parenchyma, whereas cerebritis is due to…
Inherited Metabolic Brain Disorders Inherited metabolic brain disorders produce changes in brain metabolism and structure as a result of genetic mutations. Clinically, children with metabolic brain disorders often present with nonspecific symptoms, such as hypotonia, seizures, and developmental delay, which…
Hydrocephalus means “water in the brain.” It is the morphologic end result of many different processes related to enlarging ventricles with compression on brain parenchyma and subarachnoid spaces leading to raised intracranial pressure (ICP). The active enlargement of cerebrospinal fluid…