Conflicts of Interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper. Introduction There are multiple imaging modalities to evaluate the spine. The type of imaging tool for the spine depends on the type of disease,…
Introduction The evaluation of spinal pathologies is dependent upon careful history, clinical examination, and appropriate full-length spine radiographs. Appropriate full-length spine radiographs should be obtained when evaluating a patient for suspected coronal, sagittal, or combined imbalance. Full-length spine should ideally…
Introduction Classification systems provide a common language through which physicians and researchers can communicate. They can help create a framework for standardized treatment algorithms through which surgeons can directly and reproducibly contribute to improvements in patient outcomes. In order for…
Introduction Computed tomography (CT) scans have become the mainstay modality for screening patients in the setting of cervical trauma and identifying fractures in the subaxial cervical spine. High-resolution CT imaging, in particular, has become the primary radiologic means for screening…
Introduction The advancement of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has made high-quality visualization of the normal and pathologic spine, as well as associated neural tissue, readily available. Relative to plain radiography and computed tomography (CT), MRI boasts excellent visualization of soft…
Introduction The subaxial cervical spine refers to cervical vertebrae located below the “axis” (C2) and is a critical distinction due to inherent biomechanical differences from vertebral levels more cephalad and caudad. Responsible for the majority of cervical range of motion,…
Source of Funding The authors received no outside funding for the work presented in this chapter. Conflict of Interest The authors have no conflicts of interest related to the subject matter presented in this chapter. Introduction Trauma to the upper…
Introduction The craniovertebral junction is designed to be strong in order to maintain the head on the shoulders. This junction is also supple and mobile to allow for looking at the world in all directions. While mobility and stability are…
Introduction Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an essential modality in evaluating the ligamentous and soft tissue elements of the upper cervical spine. This region has horizontally oriented facets and no intervertebral discs; ligaments and membranes are thus crucial in stabilization…
Introduction The upper cervical spine contains the craniocervical junction (CCJ), the atlas or C1, and the axis or C2. A large proportion of overall cervical motion comes from the upper cervical spine between the CCJ and C2. The CCJ accommodates…