Ear disorders are common in general, with earache being a frequent complaint. It may represent ear disease or referred pain from the oral cavity or pharynx. Causes of deafness are dealt with on p. 86, with many differentials overlapping. Causes…
Dyspnoea is the subjective awareness of breathing discomfort. Causes Sudden (seconds to minutes) ● Pneumothorax ( Fig. 15 ) ● Chest trauma ● Aspiration ● Pulmonary oedema ● Pulmonary embolism ● Anaphylaxis Acute (hours to days) ● Asthma ● Respiratory…
Dysphagia means difficulty in swallowing and should be distinguished from pain on swallowing. Dysphagia may be associated with ingestion of solids or liquids, or both. Pain on swallowing is odynophagia, which in itself does not interfere with the act of…
Spatial disorientation may be expressed by the patient as dizziness, vertigo or feeling ‘light-headed’. True vertigo, however, is not experienced as a sensation of movement but as tilting or sloping of the environment, often characterised as the room spinning around…
Diarrhoea is an increased frequency of abnormally loose motions. The diagnosis of diarrhoea must be related to the patient’s normal bowel habit. Causes Intestinal Infective enteritis Non-specific, bacterial ● Campylobacter spp • (rare in tropical Africa) ● Salmonella spp •…
Deafness is loss of hearing and may be divided into ‘conductive’ and ‘sensorineural’. Causes Conductive deafness Acquired ● Ear wax ● Otitis externa ● Otitis media (including glue ear) ● Labyrinthitis ● Otosclerosis ● Foreign body ● Perforation of the…
Cyanosis is the abnormal blue discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes, resulting from the presence of reduced oxygenated haemoglobin in the blood. It is not synonymous with hypoxaemia, which may be present (e.g. anaemia) without cyanosis. Causes Central cyanosis…
Cough is a reflex explosive expiration that prevents aspiration and promotes the removal of secretions and foreign particles from the lung. Causes Acute ● Inhaled foreign body ● Respiratory tract infection Chronic Productive ● COPD (mucoid/purulent) ● TB (bloodstained) •…
A convulsion is a series of involuntary violent contractions of voluntary muscles. Causes Neurological ● Epilepsy ● Febrile convulsions Traumatic ● Head injuries Metabolic ● Hypoxia ● Hypo and hyperglycaemia ● Electrolyte abnormalities, e.g. calcium, sodium ● Uraemia Vascular ●…
Constipation is a common complaint that results from decreased frequency of abnormally firm motions. It must be considered relative to the patient’s normal bowel habit. Absolute constipation in the absence of both bowel motions and flatus. Acute constipation due to…