15.1 Introduction Brainstem reflexes are relatively simple motor responses organized by the brainstem and designed to enable the body to adjust rapidly to sudden changes in the environment. The laryngeal adductor reflex (LAR) is possibly one of the most crucial…
14.1 Introduction Almost 60 years ago, the first description of pure motor hemiplegia of supraspinal origin was published by Fisher and Curry . Their definition was as follows: “For present purposes a pure motor hemiplegia is defined as a paralysis…
13.1 Introduction Through the ages, various treatments for spinal deformity have evolved. In 1962, Harrington ushered in the revolutionary utilization of metallic, internal fixation devices for spinal deformity when he reported on the utilization of a distraction rod construct for…
12.1 Introduction Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring of the functional integrity of spinal cord (SC) pathways is crucial to prevent, limit, or document the moment of surgically induced injury . The available methods can be divided into monitoring and mapping techniques .…
11.1 Introduction Advanced technology of both surgery and diagnostic imaging opened the door to the brain stem which was once regarded as “no man’s land” . Brain stem mapping (BSM) is now considered a tool in the neurophysiological armamentarium available…
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9.1 Introduction In modern neuro-oncology the two main goals are maximizing the extent of tumor resection to improve survival and avoiding postoperative deficits to improve the quality of life . Therefore tumor resection should be based on functional boundaries rather…
8.1 Introduction The action potential, initiated by the depolarization of the axonal membrane, has classically been described as having periods of both hypo- and hyperexcitability . Historically, most investigations related to axonal excitability use paired stimuli by first applying a…
7.1 Introduction Language and cognitive mapping is recommended in patients with intrinsic tumors involving language or cognitive pathways. Traditionally, this type of mapping was limited to patients harboring lesions in the so-called dominant hemisphere, where language was thought to be…
6.1 Introduction The functions involving the genitourinary and the anorectal systems are uniquely controlled by the complex interaction of the autonomic and the somatic nervous systems. Insofar as it is the sacral parasympathetic and somatic systems that comprise the most…