The ankle joint (talocrural joint) is a diarthrodial articulation involving the distal tibia and fibula and the body of the talus; it is the only example in the human body of a true mortise joint. The human foot is a…
The knee is the largest synovial joint in the body. It consists of three functional compartments that collectively form a dynamic, specialized hinge joint. During gait, the knee is able to withstand impressive weight-bearing loads while conducting precision movements, providing…
The pelvic girdle consists of the paired hip bones (each composed of the ilium, ischium and pubis) and the sacrum. The two pubic bones articulate anteriorly at the pubic symphysis and the sacrum articulates posteriorly with the two iliac bones…
The structure of the lower limb is specialized for support of the body’s weight, locomotion and maintenance of body stability (balance). Indeed, adaptations for weight-bearing and stability account for the major structural and functional differences between the upper and lower…
Abdominal compartmentalization The peritoneal model of abdominal compartmentalization has long been the starting point for descriptions of abdominal anatomy. According to this model, abdominal digestive organs are organized along peritoneal lines and the position of each is described using the…
The female reproductive system consists of the lower genital tract (vulva and vagina) and the upper tract (uterus and cervix with associated uterine (Fallopian) tubes and ovaries). Lower Genital Tract Vulva The female external genitalia or vulva (pudendum) include the…
The male reproductive system includes the gonads, spermatic cord, accessory sex glands and external genitalia. The male gonads, the testes, are responsible for spermatogenesis and steroidogenesis, thereby regulating reproductive function as well as normal physical and sexual development and behaviour.…
Urinary Bladder The urinary bladder is a reservoir. Its size, shape, position and relations all vary according to its content and the state of the neighbouring viscera. When the bladder is empty, it lies entirely in the lesser pelvis, but…
Kidney The kidneys excrete end products of metabolism and excess water. These actions are essential for the control of concentrations of various substances in the body, maintaining electrolyte and water balance approximately constant in the tissue fluids. The kidneys also…
Lesser Pelvis The lesser pelvis is a bowl-shaped structure formed from the sacrum, pubis, ilium, ischium, the ligaments that interconnect these bones, and the muscles that line their inner surfaces. It begins at the level of the plane passing through…