Functional and structural investigations that assess the integrity of the visual system are of utmost importance for diagnosing and monitoring ophthalmic or neurological disorders that affect vision. These investigations complement the ophthalmic and fundus examinations, allowing precise quantitative baseline and…
Structural imaging modalities such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are essential techniques for evaluating various central nervous system (CNS) disorders, providing superb structural resolution and tissue contrast. On the other hand, functional and molecular imaging modalities—such…
Computed Tomographic Angiography Computed tomographic angiography (CTA) is a relatively rapid, thin-section, volumetric, helical CT technique performed with a time-optimized bolus of contrast medium to enhance visualization of the cerebral circulation. This approach may be tailored to illustrate various segments…
Computed Tomography Computed tomography (CT; other terms include computer assisted tomography [CAT]) has been commercially available since 1973. The term tomography (i.e., to slice or section) refers to a process for generating two-dimensional (2D) image slices of an examined organ…
Neurophysiological intraoperative monitoring (IOM) uses electroencephalography (EEG), electromyography (EMG), and evoked potentials (EPs) during surgery to improve outcome. These techniques warn the surgeon of impending complications in time to intervene and correct problems before they become worse. IOM can also…
As early as the 1950s temporary deep brain stimulation (DBS) electrodes were implanted into the septal region. The procedure was performed for pain control and was reported to have beneficial effects ( ). There were various attempts at DBS, with…
At the beginning of the 1980s, Merton and Morton developed the first method of noninvasive brain stimulation, transcranial electrical stimulation (TES), and this had obvious clinical application. They used a single, brief, high-voltage electric shock and produced a relatively synchronous…
Clinical electromyography is a distinct medical discipline that plays a pivotal role in the diagnosis of peripheral nerve and neuromuscular disorders ( ). The designations clinical electromyography (EMG) , electrodiagnostic (EDX) examination , and electroneuromyography (ENMG) are used interchangeably to…
The techniques of applied electrophysiology are of practical importance in diagnosing and managing certain categories of neurological disease. Modern instrumentation permits the selective investigation of the functional aspects of the central and peripheral nervous systems. The electroencephalogram (EEG) and evoked…
The history and examination are key to making the diagnosis in a patient with neurological disease (see Chapter 1 ). However, ancillary testing is very important in diagnosis and management. Testing for specific disorders is addressed in detail in later…