Summary of Key Points From proximal to distal, nerve roots, spinal nerves, and peripheral nerves may be injured via stretch, compression, trauma, or iatrogenic mechanisms. The transition from dura to epineurium occurs within the nerve root sheath, which encases the…
Summary of Key Points The spinal cord is essential in the relay, modulation, and control of neurological information to and from the periphery. An understanding of the structural anatomy of the cord will allow for the study of its function.…
Summary of Key Points The pelvis is the foundation of the spinal column and has a primary role in determining the alignment of the spinal column. Pelvic version is important as a compensatory mechanism between mobile lower extremities and the…
Summary of Key Points The consideration of global anatomy, commonly referred to as spinal alignment or spinal balance, is important in achieving optimal surgical outcomes. Transverse pedicle width is the limiting variable in pedicle screw diameter. Width is usually smallest…
Summary of Key Points Bone is important for structure, locomotion, protection of vital organs, and mineral metabolism. Osteoporosis is a common condition resulting from decreased bone mineral density and poor bone quality, increasing fracture risk. Osteomalacia results from poor bone…
Summary of Key Points The muscles of the spine provide a “dynamic tension band” that is critical for optimum “balance” of the spine and a curvilinear plane that “loads” the discs, bones, and muscles. Optimum strength and fiber length provide…
Summary of Key Points The intervertebral disc (IVD) is composed of the inner gelatinous nucleus pulposus (NP) and the outer annulus fibrosus (AF) and flanked by the cartilaginous end plates. The NP is composed primarily of various types of proteoglycans…
Summary of Key Points Computational spine models are valuable options for conducting comprehensive biomechanical analyses, especially when clinical and experimental approaches are difficult or impossible. Multibody models and finite element models are complementary techniques used to analyze the biomechanics of…
Summary of Key Points The natural spinal curvature allows for horizontal gaze while standing in an upright position. The development and maintenance of spinal anatomy and posture are dynamic and vary by individual. Beyond the craniocervical junction, there are seven…
Summary of Key Points The development of instrumentation for internal fixation of the spine has dramatically improved the surgeon’s ability to successfully provide surgical intervention for a wide variety of spinal disorders. Internal fixation leads to higher fusion rates and…