Since the late 1970s, perhaps the most important change in the practice of clinical pediatric cardiology has been the introduction of cross-sectional echocardiography and its subsequent technical improvements. Echocardiography currently allows highly accurate diagnosis of nearly all morphologic abnormalities, for…
Introduction An understanding of the anatomy, physiology, and alternative treatment strategies for congenital heart defects is essential to provide the appropriate patient care. This includes an understanding of the guideline recommendations and the natural history of congenital heart defects. This…
Surgical Approaches to the Heart A variety of incisions are used in cardiac surgery. The majority of pediatric cardiac surgeries are performed through two incisions: the median sternotomy and the posterolateral thoracotomy. Other incisions are occasionally used to accommodate atypical…
On average, up to 12% of liveborn infants in the developed world are born prior to term. These rates have increased as a consequence of assisted reproductive technology and earlier intervention for either maternal or fetal well-being. The causes of…
In developed countries, the last few decades have heralded many advances in the diagnosis and management of congenital heart disease (CHD). These include surgery in neonates and infants; the establishment of pediatric cardiac intensive care; nursing and cardiac anesthesia; subspecialization…
Introduction Examination of the frequency of congenital cardiac disease, either as a rate or as a proportion, has important implications for the study of congenital cardiac malformations, as well as their clinical management. However, there is much confusion and misuse…
Support of the pregnant mother and her partner is a critical element in the diagnosis and management of congenital heart disease (CHD) in the fetus. From the moment a woman/couple are identified as possibly having a fetus with CHD, to…
Introduction The placenta is one of the most important and least understood organs in the human body. It is a complex, highly organized structure that—amazingly—can be grown, discarded, and fully grown again in a repetitive manner. More than just an…
Introduction As fetal echocardiography has advanced over the past several decades, our understanding of the natural history of congenital heart disease in utero has progressed. For select lesions that evolve in utero and lead to significant morbidity and/or mortality by…
Introduction With the arrival of echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), providing the means of noninvasively detecting and monitoring anomalies occurring during pregnancy, the fetus has increasingly become the target of prenatal treatment. Nonetheless, pregnancy is a unique situation, as…