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The authors would like to thank Matthew J. Tormenti, Ricky Madhok, and Adam S. Kanter for their work on the previous edition’s version of this chapter.
Irreducible atlantoaxial subluxation with compression of cervicomedullary junction.
Ventrally located pathology of the lower clivus or atlantoaxial complex.
Unstable odontoid fractures or os odontoideum with spinal canal stenosis.
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